Download Research methods notes and more Lecture notes Social Sciences in PDF only on Docsity!
COOPERATIVE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF KENYA
RESEARCH METHODS
CMCU 1105: RESEARCH METHODS
Course Outline
1&
● Introduction 1. Definition of Research
- Types of Research
- Criteria of Good Research
3 Topic identification and Title selection
- Topic selection
- Qualities of an effective research topic
- Title selection
- Qualities of an effective title
4&5 ● Background to the study
● Statement to the Problem
● Objectives
- Meaning of the Background to the study
- Qualities of an effective Background to the study
- Meaning of the Statement to the problem
- Qualities of an effective research problem
- Meaning of objectives
- Importance of objectives
- Qualities of an effective Objectives
6 CAT I
7 Literature Review 1. Meaning of the term Literature Review
- Importance of Literature Review
- Qualities of an effective Literature
Review
- Sources of Literature Review
- Theoretical review
- Empirical review
- Conceptual review
8 Research methodology 1. Research design
- Population
- Target population
- Sampling
- Data collection methods and procedure
- Pilot study
- Reliability and validity
9 Data analysis 1. Data organization
- Common methods of data analysis
- Data presentation
10 CAT II
11 Finding, Conclusion and Recommendations
- Research Finding and discussion, summary and Recommendations
12 Developing research instruments
- Questionnaire, Interview guide, observation guide
13 Research Proposal/ Referencing
- Steps in writing a good research proposal
- APA
UNIT I
systematically in our own way and find out all the answers till conclusion. If research does not work systematically on problem, there would be less possibility to find out the final result. For finding or exploring research questions, a researcher faces lot of problems that can be effectively resolved with using correct research methodology (Industrial Research Institute, 2010). Benefits of Research Methodology
- To know about the existing phenomenon
- To know extent of a cause or effect variables
- To establish relationship between variables
- ‘Tools of the trade’ to carry out research; Provides tools to look at things in life objectively
- Develops a critical and scientific attitude, disciplined thinking or a ‘bent of mind’ to observe objectively (scientific deduction & inductive thinking); Skills of research will pay-off in long term particularly in the ‘age of information’ (or too often of misinformation)
- To achieve new insights into a phenomenon: it enriches practitioner and his practices; Provides chance to study a subject in depth; Enable us to make intelligent decisions; Understand the material which no other kind of work can match 7. As consumers of research output helps to inculcate the ability to evaluate and use results of earlier research with reasonable confidence and take rational decisions Additional benefits in case of librarianship:
- Helps to understand the ‘researcher’ as a user of library and learn how to use libraries & other information resources
- Doing research is the best way to learn to read and think critically. It enables critical evaluation of literature
- Develops special interests & skills
- Helps to understand attitude of others
- Creates awareness of special needs of research process
- Facilitates reference and information service Motivation of Research: What makes people undertake research
- Desiring solution to the problem/ hazard
- Desire to do a social / national / organizational service
- Inner satisfaction of a creative job
- Advancement of wealth of human knowledge
Types of Research The choice of study type is an important aspect of the design of medical studies. The
study design and consequent study type are major determinants of a study’s scientific
quality and clinical value.
- Descriptive versus Analytical: i. Descriptive research means describing state of affairs – Mostly involves primary data – ex-post research
ii. Analytical research means carrying out analysis on a phenomenon – Mostly involves secondary data – ex-ante research- before contemplated change
- Applied versus Fundamental Research i. Applied research aims to find a solution to an immediate problem facing a country/ society/ organization etc. ii. Fundamental research is a basic research mainly concerned with generalizations
- Quantitative versus Qualitative Research ● Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount Example CO 2 emission ● Qualitative research is concerned with subjective attitude/quality/attributes/ desires/ feelings/etc Example: Feeling about Dhaka city air pollution (intolerable/mildly intolerable/ tolerable
- Conceptual versus Empirical i. Conceptual research is about abstract ideas or theory, E.g. Attack from ghosts, ii. Empirical Research is data-based and subject to verification
Research Approaches
- According to types of research discussed, there can be two approaches to research: a. Quantitative approach: b. Qualitative approach
Quantitative approach can be further divided into 3 groups: i. Inferential approach – infer characteristics of a phenomenon through collection of data –example CO2 emission. ii. Experimental approach – Researcher deliberately changes some variables to know the causal effect- example – effect of temperature rise on plant growth under open sky iii. Simulation approach – Researcher artificially construct an environment and collects data like a greenhouse is constructed and impact of temperature rise on plant growth is measured
Qualitative approach can be further divided into 4 groups as follows:
- Phenomenology
- Ethnography.
- Grounded theory.
- Case study.
- Ethnography This type of research focuses on describing the culture of a group of people. A culture is
use other participants to validate your findings. For example, there's been an explosion in the last 5 years in online courses and training. But how do students engage with these courses? While you can examine time spent and content accessed using log data and even assess student achievement vis-a- vis in-person courses, a phenomenological study would aim to better understand the students experience and how that may impact comprehension of the material.
- Grounded Theory Grounded theory:- it is an inductive type of research, based or grounded in the observations of data from which it was developed; it uses a variety of data sources, including quantitative data, review of records, interviews, observation and surveys Whereas a phenomenological study looks to describe the essence of an activity or event, grounded theory looks to provide an explanation or theory behind the events. You use primarily interviews and existing documents to build a theory based on the data. You go through a series of open and axial coding techniques to identify themes and build the theory. Sample sizes are often also larger—between 20 to 60—with these studies to better establish a theory. Grounded theory can help inform design decisions by better understanding how a community of users currently use a product or perform tasks. For example, a grounded theory study could involve understanding how software developers use portals to communicate and write code or how small retail merchants approve or decline customers for credit.
- Case Study Case study:-is a form of qualitative research that is focused on providing a detailed
account of one or more cases. Eg:-we may study a classroom that was given a new
curriculum for technology use.
Made famous by the Harvard Business School, even mainly quantitative researchers can relate to the value of the case study in explaining an organization, entity, company,
or event. A case study involves a deep understanding through multiple types of data
sources. Case studies can be explanatory, exploratory, or describing an event. The
annual CHI conference has a peer-reviewed track dedicated to case studies. For example, a case study of how a large multi-national company introduced UX
methods into an agile development environment would be informative to many
organizations.
In addition to the above, we also have the descriptive research. Fundamental research, of which this is based on establishing various theories
Other classifications of researches: 1. Descriptive research 2. Analytical research 3. Fundamental research 4. Conceptual research 5. Empirical research 6. One time research or longitudinal research 7. Field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research 8. Clinical or diagnostic research 9. Exploratory research 10.Historical research 11.conclusion oriented research 12.case study research 13.short term research
Criteria of Good Research Every research study, irrespective of its type, should meet some criterions so that it can
be classified as good research. They all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:
- Originates with a question or problem.
- Requires clear articulation of a goal i.e. the purpose of the research is clearly defined.
- Follows a specific plan or procedure.
- Often divides main problem into sub problems.
- Guided by specific problem, question, or hypothesis.
- Accepts certain critical assumptions.
- Requires collection and interpretation of data.
- The research method should be defined in a clear manner with sufficient detail. This will allow the repetition of the study in future for further advancement, while maintaining the continuity of what has been done in the past. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained.
- Any limitations and assumptions made by the researcher during the course of the study should be clearly highlighted in the research. This will support the findings of the research study, in case someone tries to validate the study findings.
- The research design should be planned in a way that the results generated are as objective as possible. This will provide an easier understanding about the findings of the research.
- There should be sufficient data to investigate the research topic. And the researcher should carefully check the reliability and validity of the data.
- Further, in order to deliver a good research, a researcher should confine the conclusions to those justified by the data.
- Good research depends a great deal on the integrity and commitment of the researcher.
Possible answers: ● Inadequate knowledge of early symptoms and signs of Leprosy among patients and service providers ● Negative attitudes towards modern health care ● Existence of stigma about Leprosy in the community Therefore, the ability to develop a good research topic is an important skill. An instructor may assign you a specific topic, but most often instructors require you to select your own topic of interest. When deciding on a topic, there are a few things that you will need to do:
Be aware that selecting a good topic may not be easy. It must be narrow and focused enough to be interesting, yet broad enough to find adequate information. Before selecting your topic, make sure you know what your final project should look like. Each class or instructor will likely require a different format or style of research project. Use the steps below to guide you through the process of selecting a research topic.
Step 1: Brainstorm for ideas Choose a topic that interests you. Use the following questions to help generate topic ideas. ● Do you have a strong opinion on a current social or political controversy ● Did you read or see a news story recently that has piqued your interest or made you angry or anxious? ● Do you have a personal issue, problem or interest that you would like to know more about? ● Do you have a research paper due for a class this semester? ● Is there an aspect of a class that you are interested in learning more about? Look at some of the following topically oriented Web sites and research sites for ideas.
Are you interested in current events, government, politics or the social sciences? o Try Washington File ● Are you interested in health or medicine? o Look in Healthfinder.gov, Health & Wellness Resource Center or the National Library of Medicine ● Are you interested in the Humanities; art, literature, music? o Browse links from the National Endowment for the Humanities ● For other subject areas try: o the Scout Report or the New York Times/ College Web site Write down any key words or concepts that may be of interest to you. Could these terms help be used to form a more focused research topic? Be aware of overused ideas when deciding a topic. You may wish to avoid topics such as, abortion, gun control, teen pregnancy, or suicide unless you feel you have a unique approach to the topic. Ask the instructor for ideas if you feel you are stuck or need additional guidance.
Step 2: Read General Background Information
Read a general encyclopedia article on the top two or three topics you are considering. Reading a broad summary enables you to get an overview of the topic and see how your idea relates to broader, narrower, and related issues. It also provides a great source for finding words commonly used to describe the topic. These keywords may be very useful to your later research. If you cant find an article on your topic, try using broader terms and ask for help from a librarian. For example, the Encyclopedia Britannica Online (or the printed version of this encyclopedia, in Thompson Library's Reference Collection on Reference Table 1) may not have an article on Social and Political Implications of Jackie Robinsons Breaking of the Color Barrier in Major League Baseball but there will be articles on baseball history and on Jackie Robinson. Browse the Encyclopedia for information on your topic ideas. Notice that both online encyclopedias provide links to magazine articles and Web sites. These are listed in the left or the right margins. ● Use periodical indexes to scan current magazine, journal or newspaper articles on your topic. Ask a librarian if they can help you to browse articles on your topics of interest. ● Use Web search engines such as Google and Bing Step 3: Focus on Your Topic Keep it manageable A topic will be very difficult to research if it is too broad or narrow. One way to narrow a broad topic such as "the environment" is to limit your topic. Some common ways to limit a topic are: a) By geographical area: e.g. What environmental issues are most important in the Southwestern United States b) By culture: e.g. How does the environment fit into the Navajo world view? c) By time frame: e.g. What are the most prominent environmental issues of the last 10 years? d) By discipline: e.g. How does environmental awareness effect business practices today? e) By population group: e.g. What are the effects of air pollution on senior citizens? Remember that a topic may be too difficult to research if it is too: a) Locally confined - Topics this specific may only be covered in these (local) newspapers, if at all. ● Example: What sources of pollution affect the Mulolongo Sub-County water supply? b) Recent - If a topic is quite recent, books or journal articles may not be available, but newspaper or magazine articles may. Also, Web sites related to the topic may or may not be available. c) Broadly interdisciplinary - You could be overwhelmed with superficial information. ● Example: How can the environment contribute to the culture, politics and society of the Western states? d) Popular - You will only find very popular articles about some topics such as sports figures and high-profile celebrities and musicians.
Focused Research Question = What design principles used by John Wekesa are common in contemporary homes?
Step 7: Research and Read More About Your Topic Use the key words you have gathered to research in the catalog, article databases, and Internet search engines. Find more information to help you answer your research question.
You will need to do some research and reading before you select your final topic. Can you find enough information to answer your research question? Remember, selecting a topic is an important and complex part of the research process.
Step 8: Formulate a Thesis Statement Write your topic as a thesis statement. This may be the answer to your research question and/or a way to clearly state the purpose of your research. Your thesis statement will usually be one or two sentences that states precisely what is to be answered, proven, or what you will inform your audience about your topic. The development of a thesis assumes there is sufficient evidence to support the thesis statement. For example, a thesis statement could be: John Wekesa's design principles, including his use of ornamental detail and his sense of space and texture opened a new era of Kenyan architecture. His work has influenced contemporary residential design. The title of your paper may not be exactly the same as your research question or your thesis statement, but the title should clearly convey the focus, purpose and meaning of your research. For example, a title could be: John Wekesa: Key Principles of Design For the Modern Home
Practical Exercises
- Identify three narrower aspects of the following broad topics. In other words, what are three areas you could investigate that fit into these very broad topics? ● Sports ● Pollution ● Politics ● Education
- Identify a broader topic that would cover the following narrow topics. In other words, how could you expand these topics to find more information? ● Menus in Nairobi Schools ● Urban planning in Mombasa
- Imagine that you have been assigned the following topics. Think of 5 keywords you might use to look for information on each. ● How does air quality affect our health? ● What are the barriers to peace in Somalia? ● Should Cricket be allowed in hot areas? ● How can welfare reform help poor children?
Qualities of an effective research topic Title selection There is no real formula for identifying a meaningful title. The title describes the scope of the research. Choose a title that captures the essence of your proposed project. a) The title should accurately describe the exact nature of the main element of the study. b) The title must be informative and relevant and should capture the attention of the reader. c) The title should not be too long (normally not more than 10 words) but should provide as much information about the study as possible. d) The title should preferably not be in a question form; it must define the research clearly, and must be clear and precise. e) The title should not contain technical terms, or jargon. The use of acronyms should be limited. Qualities of an effective title A good topic for your research study should be concerned with an issue of current major
concern to you and possibly a chosen organization. It should have sufficient scope and depth to form the basis of a dissertation. It should be manageable, given your time and
resource constraints. It should be relevant to your course. And the issue/s in question
should be generally applicable to one or more organizations providing a context, but of
general benefit to others and your own professional or career development (e.g. to become a specialist in a chosen field/area).
A research is a comprehensive task and it requires great effort as a researcher on your part. The first thing that determines the success of your research is your research topic. A good research topic should have the following qualities.
- Clarity is the most important quality of any research topic. The topic should have to be clear so that others can easily understand the nature of your research. The research topic should have a single interpretation so that people cannot get distracted. The topic should have to be very clear in your mind so that you can properly undertake it. The research topic should have to be free of any ambiguity. Clarity also means that the research topic should have to be directional and it should set the whole research methodology.
- Well-defined and well-phrased research topic is a half guarantee of a successful research. Sometimes researchers phrase the research topic in such a way that it gives a double-barrelled impression. The research topic should have to be well- defined and well-phrased and it should have to be easy to understand. it should have a single meaning.
- The language of the research topic should have to be simple. You should use technical terms only when it is necessary, otherwise use simple words so that everyone can understand it. keep the ethics of writing in your mind to avoid any unethical term or sentence. Do not introduce any sort of bias directly or indirectly, willingly or unwillingly in the research problem or research topic.
UNIT III
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
Meaning of the Background to the study One of the preliminary steps to completing a thesis/dissertation or research paper is the background study for it. The background study includes a review of the area being researched, current information surrounding the issue, previous studies on the issue, and relevant history on the issue. Ideally, the study should effectively set forth the history and background information on your thesis problem. The purpose of a background study is to help the researcher to prove the relevance of the thesis question and to further develop the thesis/dissertation or research paper. It addresses why the proposed work is important in the field, and answers the question, “so what?” it provides the status quo of the relevant work field and identify a
gap in knowledge or activities that must be filled to move the field forward. Sufficient details should be given in this discussion (1) to make clear what the research problem is and exactly what has been accomplished; (2) to give evidence of your own competence in the field; and (3) to show why the previous work needs to be continued. Background information identifies and describes the history and nature of a well-defined
research problem with reference to the existing literature. The background information should indicate the root of the problem being studied, appropriate context of the
problem in relation to theory, research, and/or practice, its scope, and the extent to which
previous studies have successfully investigated the problem, noting, in particular, where
gaps exist that your study attempts to address.
Providing Background Information
The reader should be able to understand the researcher’s topic and its importance. The length and detail of the researcher’s background also depend on the degree to which the researcher needs to demonstrate their understanding of the topic. Paying close attention to the following questions will help the researcher in writing background information:
- Are there any theories, concepts, terms, and ideas that may be unfamiliar to the target audience and will require you to provide any additional explanation?
- Any historical data that need to be shared in order to provide context on why the current issue emerged?
- Are there any concepts that may have been borrowed from other disciplines that may be unfamiliar to the reader and need an explanation?
Is the research study unique for which additional explanation is needed? For instance, you may have used a completely new method
What Makes the Introduction Different from the Background?
The introduction is different from the background in a number of ways. ● First, the introduction contains preliminary data about your topic that the reader will most likely read. ● Secondly, the background of your study discusses in depth about the topic, whereas the introduction only gives an overview. ● Lastly, your introduction should end with your research questions, aims, and objectives, whereas your background should not (except in some cases where your background is integrated into your introduction).
Summary of background The background of the study is the key to introduce your audience to your research topic and should be done with string knowledge and thoughtful writing.
- The background should begin with defining a topic and audience.
- A description of what is already known about this area to the audience and short discussion of why the background studies are not sufficient.
- Summarize what is already known about the field. Include a summary of the basic
STATEMENT TO THE PROBLEM
Meaning of the Statement to the problem A problem statement is a brief description of the issues that need to be addressed by a problem solving team or researcher and should be presented to them (or created by them) before they try to solve a problem. A research problem is a definite or clear expression [statement] about an area of concern, a condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or within existing practice that points to a need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. A research problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad proposition, or present a value question. Statement of the problem: Against the above background the research isolates the problem that he/she finds to be particularly crucial and needs to be looked into. Isolating the problem entails stating it in clear and specific terms, as much as possible at this initial stage. This delimitation helps the researcher to manage and deal with it effectively. Stating the problem of study could be said to involve stating “how things are” and “how they should be”. Or simply, “the situation is this or that and yet it ought to be like this or that.”
The purpose of a problem statement is to:
- Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied. The reader is oriented to the significance of the study and the research questions, hypotheses, or assumptions to follow.
- Place the topic into a particular context that defines the parameters of what is to be investigated.
- Provide the framework for reporting the results and indicates what is probably necessary to conduct the study and explain how the findings will present this information.
Qualities of an effective research problem
So What! In the social sciences, the research problem establishes the means by which you must answer the "So What" question. The "So What" question refers to a research problem surviving the relevancy test [the quality of a measurement procedure that provides repeatability and accuracy]. Note that answering the "So What" question requires a commitment on your part to not only show that you have researched the material, but that you have thoroughly considered its significance. To survive the "So What" question, problem statements should possess the following attributes:
- Clarity and precision [a well-written statement does not make sweeping generalizations and irresponsible pronouncements],
- Demonstrate a researchable topic or issue [i.e., feasibility of conducting the study is based upon access to information that can be effectively acquired, gathered, interpreted, synthesized, and understood],
- Identification of what would be studied, while avoiding the use of value-laden words
and terms,
- Identification of an overarching question or small set of questions accompanied by key factors or variables,
- Identification of key concepts and terms,
- Articulation of the study's boundaries or parameters or limitations,
- Some generalizability in regards to applicability and bringing results into general use,
- Conveyance of the study's importance, benefits, and justification [i.e., regardless of the type of research, it is important to demonstrate that the research is not trivial],
- Does not have unnecessary jargon or overly complex sentence constructions; and, 10.Conveyance of more than the mere gathering of descriptive data providing only a snapshot of the issue or phenomenon under investigation. What Makes a Good Research Statement? A good problem statement begins by introducing the broad area in which your research is centered, gradually leading the reader to the more specific issues you are investigating. The statement need not be lengthy, but a good research problem should incorporate the following features:
- Compelling Topic: Simple curiosity is not a good enough reason to pursue a research study because it does not indicate significance. The problem that you choose to explore must be important to you, your readers, and to a the larger academic and/or social community that could be impacted by the results of your study. The problem chosen must be one that motivates you to address it.
- Supports Multiple Perspectives: The problem must be phrased in a way that avoids dichotomies and instead supports the generation and exploration of multiple perspectives. A general rule of thumb in the social sciences is that a good research problem is one that would generate a variety of viewpoints from a composite audience made up of reasonable people.
- (^) Researchability: This isn't a real word but it represents an important aspect of creating a good research statement. It seems a bit obvious, but you don't want to find yourself in the midst of investigating a complex research project and realize that you don't have enough prior research to draw from for your analysis. There's nothing inherently wrong with original research, but you must choose research problems that can be supported, in some way, by the resources available to you. If you are not sure if something is researchable, don't assume that it isn't if you don't find information right away--seek help
Sources of Problems for Investigation
- The identification of a problem to study can be challenging, not because there's a lack of issues that could be investigated, but due to the challenge of formulating an academically relevant and researchable problem which is unique and does not simply duplicate the work of others. To facilitate how you might select a problem from which to build a research study, consider these sources of inspiration:
- Deductions from Theory: This relates to deductions made from social philosophy or generalizations embodied in life and in society that the researcher is familiar with. These deductions from human behavior are then placed within an empirical frame of reference through research. From a theory, the researcher can formulate a
