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Revision PSY10005 Exam, Exams of Psychology

Swinburne University of Technology (SUT)Psychology

Revision for the exam, contains info from all weeks

Typology: Exams

2020/2021

Uploaded on 06/10/2021

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Exam Revision
Distinguish between experimental and descriptive research:
Experimental: attempts to uncover cause-and-effect relationships.
Descriptive: tries to describe a phenomenon.
Difference between quantitative and qualitative research:
Quantitative = numerical data.
Qualitative = non-numerical data.
What is the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable?
IV is the cause of something, DV is the effect or outcome. IV effects the DV. DV is
dependent on the effect of the IV.
What is the difference between a quantitative variable and a categorical variable?
Quantitative: varies by numbers or degrees
Categorical: varies by kind or type (categories)
What is the difference between a mediating variable and a moderator variable?
Mediating: occurs between 2 other variables in a causal chain eg. smoking – tissue damage –
lung cancer.
Moderator: determines how the relationship varies between IV and DV. e.g., if behavioural
therapy worked better for males and cognitive therapy worked better for females, then gender
would be a moderator variable
What is experimental research?
A quantitative approach designed to see how one thing (IV) affects another (DV).
What is a cause-and-effect relationship?
When changes in one variable cause a change in another variable. Cause produces something
else, and effect is the result.
What are the three required conditions for making the claim of cause and effect?
1. The IV and the DV must have a relationship.
2. Changes in the IV must come before changes in the DV (temporal order condition).
3. There are no other explanations for the changes in the DV.
Why can’t you claim cause and effect from just the relationship between two variables?
Any change might be due to another variable.
What is a psychological experiment?
An objective observation of phenomena which are made to occur in a strictly controlled
situation in which one or more factors are varied and the others are kept constant.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of the psychological experiment?
Advantages: identifies causal relationships, there is an ability to manipulate variables,
experiments can be controlled.
Disadvantages: Non-manipulated variables are not tested, results are acquired in an artificial
environment, inadequate methods of enquiry.
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Exam Revision

Distinguish between experimental and descriptive research: Experimental : attempts to uncover cause-and-effect relationships. Descriptive : tries to describe a phenomenon. Difference between quantitative and qualitative research: Quantitative = numerical data. Qualitative = non-numerical data. What is the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable? IV is the cause of something, DV is the effect or outcome. IV effects the DV. DV is dependent on the effect of the IV. What is the difference between a quantitative variable and a categorical variable? Quantitative : varies by numbers or degrees Categorical : varies by kind or type (categories) What is the difference between a mediating variable and a moderator variable? Mediating : occurs between 2 other variables in a causal chain eg. smoking – tissue damage – lung cancer. Moderator : determines how the relationship varies between IV and DV. e.g., if behavioural therapy worked better for males and cognitive therapy worked better for females, then gender would be a moderator variable What is experimental research? A quantitative approach designed to see how one thing (IV) affects another (DV). What is a cause-and-effect relationship? When changes in one variable cause a change in another variable. Cause produces something else, and effect is the result. What are the three required conditions for making the claim of cause and effect?

  1. The IV and the DV must have a relationship.
  2. Changes in the IV must come before changes in the DV (temporal order condition).
  3. There are no other explanations for the changes in the DV. Why can’t you claim cause and effect from just the relationship between two variables? Any change might be due to another variable. What is a psychological experiment? An objective observation of phenomena which are made to occur in a strictly controlled situation in which one or more factors are varied and the others are kept constant. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the psychological experiment? Advantages : identifies causal relationships, there is an ability to manipulate variables, experiments can be controlled. Disadvantages : Non-manipulated variables are not tested, results are acquired in an artificial environment, inadequate methods of enquiry.

What are the different research settings in which experimental research is conducted, and what are the advantages and disadvantages of each setting? Field – conducted in real life. Advantage : not subject to artificial settings. Disadvantage : cannot be controlled as effectively. Laboratory – conducted in lab setting. Advantage : can be controlled. Disadvantage : situation is very artificial. Internet – study conducted over the internet. Advantages : ease of access to diverse participants, bringing the experiment to the people, larger samples, cost saving. Disadvantages : Multiple submissions, lack of control, self-selection, dropout rate. What is nonexperimental quantitative research? No manipulation of the independent variable (IV). Used to identify and describe. What is the difference between correlational research and natural manipulation research? Correlational research: no manipulation is present Natural manipulation research: an event occurs that might be seen as a manipulation In what ways is correlational research and natural manipulation research similar? They are both looking for relationships between variables What are cross-sectional and longitudinal designs? Cross sectional – all data is collected at one time Longitudinal – data is collected at two or more points in time Data collection methods: Questionnaires : Advantages: Good for measuring attitudes and eliciting other content from research participants. Inexpensive (especially mail questionnaires, Internet, and group-administered questionnaires). Disadvantages: Usually, must be kept short. Response rate may be low for mail and e-mail questionnaires. Interviews : Advantages: Good for measuring attitudes and most other content of interest. Allows probing and posing of follow-up questions by the interviewer. Disadvantages: In-person interviews usually are expensive and time consuming. Perceived anonymity by respondents might be low. Focus Groups: Advantages: Useful for exploring ideas and concepts. Can obtain in-depth information. Disadvantages: Sometimes expensive. Might be dominated by one or two participants.

What are the categories of review that a research proposal can receive? Exempt, expedited review, full board review. What are the criteria used to determine in which category a research proposal falls? Emotional, physiological, or economic risk factors. What is meant by informed consent, and why is this considered a vital component of a research protocol? Participants are informed about all aspects of the research, and it is vital because they can decide what do with their own minds and body with full information. When is it appropriate for you to dispense with informed consent? When the integrity of data can be compromised. What is meant by assent, and when should it be obtained? When a minor agrees to research after they have been given an age-appropriate explanation. What is the difference between active consent and passive consent? Active consent: is signing and verbally agreeing. Passive consent: is agreeing by not rejecting. When should you try to obtain passive consent, and what ethical issues are associated with it? Passive consent should only be used when study would be seriously compromised by using active consent. Ethical issues are that participants may not be aware, eg. may not have received consent form. What is deception, and what are the ethical issues involved with the use of deception in psychological research?

  • Not informing the participant in the nature of research in which you are asking them to participate.
  • Ethical issues: deception can negatively influence participants views on psychology, however debriefing after the research can help with feelings of being deceived. Define or refute the position that participants in most psychological research studies are coerced to participate. In most research, participants are not coerced as they are told they can leave at any time. Explain privacy and how confidentiality and anonymity relate to privacy. Privacy : is ensuring personal details are under control. Anonymity: keeps personal information unknown. Confidentiality : means that any information gathered will not be shared What are the ethical issues involved in conducting research on the Internet? When is consent required, how is consent obtained, how can we be sure participant actually gave consent? What is the difference between privacy, confidentiality, and anonymity? Privacy is controlling one’s own personal information, confidentiality is having personal info kept private, anonymity is not providing personal information

What is the distinction between animal welfare and animal rights? Welfare is the conditions in which the animals live while under research, and welfare is believing animals have the same rights as humans and should not be used in research. What basic guidelines have been adopted by APA for the care and use of research animals? Justification of research, personnel, care and housing of animals, acquisition of animals, experimental procedures, field research, education use of animals. Strengths & Weaknesses of Sampling: Simple Random Sampling: Ensures a high degree of representativeness. Time consuming and tedious. Stratified Random Sampling: Ensures a high degree of representativeness of all the strata or layers in the population. Time consuming and tedious. Cluster Random Sampling : Easy and convenient. Possibly, members of units are different from one another, decreasing the techniques effectiveness. Systematic Sampling : Ensures a high degree of representativeness, and no need to use a table of random numbers. Less random than simple random sampling. What are the key characteristics of the different types of non-random sampling methods? Convenience sampling – using people who are readily available. Quota sampling – setting the number of people you need, then using convenience sampling to find people Purposive sampling – researchers specify the characteristics needed, then finds people who meet their needs Snowball sampling – sampled people are asked to suggest other people with similar characteristics as themselves What is statistical conclusion validity? Validity of the inference made about whether the independent and dependent variables change together. Why is statistical conclusion validity important? It tells you how reliable that conclusion is. Conclusion validity is only concerned with the question: Based on the data, is there a relationship or is not there? It does not delve into specifics (like reliability tests) about what kinds of relationship exist. It can be used for qualitative research as well as quantitative research. What is construct validity, and why is it important? Construct validity refers to whether a scale or test measures the construct adequately. Construct validity is valuable in social sciences, where there is a lot of subjectivity to concepts. Often, there is no accepted unit of measurement for constructs and even fairly well- known ones, such as IQ, are open to debate. What are some threats to construct validity?

Conduct the experiment on diverse groups of individuals and treatment variations in many settings and at different points in time Why does there tend to be an inverse relationship between internal and external validity?

  • Factors that increase our ability to establish cause and effect tend to decrease our ability to generalize.
  • External validity is established through replication.
  • Emphasis of internal or external validity depends on whether or not a causal relationship has been established Why is randomization the most important control technique? It is a control technique for equating experimental groups and is important to ensure there are no extraneous variables to bias study results. Random assignment increases the likelihood that the two groups are the same at the outset, that way any changes that result from the application of the independent variable can be assumed to be the result of the treatment of interest. How does it control for the confounding effect of extraneous variables? Random assignment of participants to groups. How does one randomly assign a set of participants to groups to be used in an experiment?
  1. Number participants
  2. Block the list of random numbers into columns of 2
  3. Randomly select numbers List and define each of the matching control techniques. How does each technique control for extraneous variables? Holding Variables Constant – all participants in a group have the same extraneous variable, eg. gender. Building the Extraneous Variable into the Research Design – treating extraneous variable as an IV, eg. different IQ levels sorted into groups Yoked Control - matched experimental and control subjects are yoked (joined together) and receive the same stimuli or conditions Equating Participants – matching individual participants in each group on extraneous variables List and describe the control techniques that can be used to create, in the research participants, identical perceptions of the experiment. Counterbalancing – giving treatment to participants in a different order, or sequence Intrasubject Counterbalancing – giving treatment more than once, in a different order each time Complete Counterbalancing – when all possible orders/sequences are used. Eg. 123, 321, 231, 213... and then different sequences are applied to different groups Incomplete Counterbalancing – when all possible sequences are NOT used.

What are the criteria that need to be met to have a strong experimental research design?

  1. Designs that effectively control extraneous variables and provide strong evidence of cause and effect
  2. Improved internal validity achieved by eliminating rival hypotheses with control techniques:
  • most important is random assignment with a control group
  • group that does not get the independent variable or gets some standard value o serves as source of comparison to experimental group controls for rival hypothesis Experimental group The group of participants that receives the treatment condition that is intended to produce an effect What function is served by the control group? serves as a standard of comparison for determining whether the treatment condition produced any causal effect What function is served by random assignment of participants to groups? this is the only means by which known and unknown variables can be controlled What is the structure of a posttest-only control-group design? Research participants are randomly assigned to as many groups as there are experimental conditions What threats to internal validity are eliminated with this design, and how does the design control for these threats? Random assignment to groups creates equivalence use of control group eliminates most threats to internal validity What are some of the strengths and weaknesses of the posttest-only control-group design? Strengths : Different groups are exposed to the different levels of the independent variable participants are randomly assigned to groups Weaknesses : does not guarantee equivalence of groups – particularly with small sample size no pre-test to assess equivalence What are some strengths and weaknesses of the within-participants posttest-only design? Strengths : increased sensitivity because effects of individual differences are controlled fewer research participants needed Weaknesses: difficult for participants potential problem of differential carryover effects What threats to internal validity are eliminated with this design, and how does the design control for these threats? Because of random assignment, this design is strong on internal validity, ruling out all of the basic threats to internal validity What are some of the strengths and weaknesses of including a pretest in the pretest–posttest control-group design? -including the pretest measurement allows the researcher to check to see how well the

research participant will be expected to participate

  • What procedures will be followed and whether any of them are experimental (discomforts and risks listed)
  • Any benefits to be derived from participation in the study
  • Any alternative procedures that might be beneficial to the participant monetary compensation, including the schedule of payments and the effect (if any) on the payment schedule in the event the participant withdraws from the study.
  • If course credit is to be given, the statement should provide an explanation of how much credit will be received and whether the credit will still be given if the research participant withdraws from the study.
  • Participants should be informed that they can refuse to answer, without penalty, any questions that make them uncomfortable.
  • Studies investigating sensitive topics should provide info on where to get help (eg. depression, substance abuse, or child abuse)
  • Participants must be told that they can withdraw from the study at any time without penalty participants must be informed as to how the records and data obtained will be kept confidential What purpose do the instructions to participants serve? To advise the participant how the research should be completed by them, ensuring all data has been correctly given making study more robust What guidelines should be followed in preparing these instructions?
  • should be precise, but not overly complex
  • refrain from certain phrases eg. “Pay attention”, “relax”, and “ignore distractions”
  • language should be simple and on the level of the participant
  • warm-up trials can assess understanding of instructions What function is served by the post experimental interview? Ethical:
  • undo any deception involved in study
  • decrease stress or risk if possible o attempt to return participants to pre-experimental state (particularly important if deception is used) Educational:
  • this mostly applies to students participating in research for class credit Methodological:
  • to establish effectiveness of independent variable or deception
  • to judge accuracy of participations’ suspicions and perceptions Sense of satisfaction:
  • participant feeling as if they contributed to science and society How should you proceed in conducting this interview?
  • face to face generally preferred
  • begin by asking if participant has questions
  • question participant to determine if all aspects of study were clear and if deception was used
  • attempt to determine if participant discerned true nature of study
  • explain the purpose of using deception
  • ask participant not to reveal details of experiment to other participants What procedural issues must be specified prior to actual data collection? If any procedural changes are made, they must be reported to IRB to be approved What purpose is served by a pilot study?
  • establishes clarity of instructions
  • provides evidence that independent variable is being manipulated adequately
  • familiarizes researcher with the procedure