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Section 2
DRIVING SAFELY
This Section Covers:
✓ Vehicle Inspection
✓ Basic Control of Your Vehicle
✓ Shifting Gears
✓ Seeing
✓ Communicating
✓ Space Management
✓ Controlling Your Speed
✓ Seeing Hazards
✓ Distracted Driving
✓ Aggressive Drivers/Road Rage
✓ Night Driving & Driver Fatigue
✓ Driving in Fog
✓ Winter Driving
✓ Hot Weather Driving
✓ Railroad-highway Crossings
✓ Mountain Driving
✓ Driving Emergencies
✓ Antilock Braking Systems
✓ Skid Control and Recovery
✓ Accident Procedures
✓ Fires
✓ Alcohol, Other Drugs, and Driving
✓ Hazardous Materials Rules
This section contains knowledge and safe driving information that all commercial drivers should know. You must pass a test on this information to get a CDL. This section does not have specific information on air brakes, combination vehicles, doubles, or passenger vehicles. When preparing for the Vehicle Inspection Test, you must review the material in Section 11 in addition to the information in this section. This section does have basic information on hazardous materials (HazMat) that all drivers should know. If you need a HazMat endorsement, you should study Section 9.
2.1 – Vehicle Inspection
2.1.1 – Why Inspect
Safety is the most important reason you inspect your vehicle, safety for yourself and for other road users. A vehicle defect found during an inspection could save you problems later. You could have a breakdown on the road that will cost time and dollars, or even worse, a crash caused by the defect. Federal and state laws require that drivers inspect their vehicles. Federal and state inspectors also may inspect your vehicles. If they judge the vehicle to be unsafe, they will put it "out of service" until it is fixed.
2.1.2 – Types of Vehicle Inspection
Vehicle Inspection
A Vehicle inspection will help you find problems that could cause a crash or breakdown.
During a Trip
For safety you should: ✓ Watch gauges for signs of trouble. ✓ Use your senses to check for problems (look, listen, smell, feel). ✓ Check critical items when you stop:
- Tires, wheels and rims.
- Brakes.
- Lights and reflectors.
- Brake and electrical connections to trailer.
- Trailer coupling devices.
- Cargo securement devices.
After-trip Inspection and Report
You should do an after-trip inspection at the end of the trip, day, or tour of duty on each vehicle you operated. It may include filling out a vehicle condition report listing any problems you find. The inspection report helps a motor carrier know when the vehicle needs repairs.
2.1.3 – What to Look For
Tire Problems
✓ Too much or too little air pressure. ✓ Bad wear. You need at least 4/32-inch tread depth in every major groove on front tires. You need 2/32 inch on other tires. No fabric should show through the tread or sidewall. ✓ Cuts or other damage. ✓ Tread separation. ✓ Dual tires that come in contact with each other or parts of the vehicle. ✓ Mismatched sizes. ✓ Radial and bias-ply tires used together. ✓ Cut or cracked valve stems. ✓ Re-grooved, recapped, or retreaded tires on the front wheels of a bus are prohibited.
Wheel and Rim Problems
✓ Damaged rims. ✓ Rust around wheel nuts may mean the nuts are loose-
- check tightness. After a tire has been changed, stop a short while later and re-check tightness of nuts. ✓ Missing clamps, spacers, studs, or lugs means danger. ✓ Mismatched, bent, or cracked lock rings are dangerous. ✓ Wheels or rims that have had welding repairs are not safe.
Bad Brake Drums or Shoes
✓ Cracked drums. ✓ Shoes or pads with oil, grease, or brake fluid on them. ✓ Shoes worn dangerously thin, missing, or broken.
Steering System Defects
✓ Missing nuts, bolts, cotter keys, or other parts. ✓ Bent, loose, or broken parts, such as steering column, steering gear box, or tie rods. ✓ If power steering equipped, check hoses, pumps, and fluid level; check for leaks. ✓ Steering wheel play of more than 10 degrees (approximately 2 inches movement at the rim of a 20- inch steering wheel) can make it hard to steer. Figure 2.1 illustrates a typical steering system. Figure 2.
Suspension System Defects
The suspension system holds up the vehicle and its load. It keeps the axles in place. Therefore, broken suspension parts can be extremely dangerous. Look for: ✓ Spring hangers that allow movement of axle from proper position. See Figure 2.2. Figure 2. ✓ Cracked or broken spring hangers. ✓ Missing or broken leaves in any leaf spring. If one- fourth or more are missing, it will put the vehicle "out of service", but any defect could be dangerous. See Figure 2.3. Figure 2.
✓ Coolant level in radiator; condition of hoses. ✓ Power steering fluid level; hose condition (if so equipped). ✓ Windshield washer fluid level. ✓ Battery fluid level, connections and tie downs (battery may be located elsewhere. ✓ Automatic transmission fluid level (may require engine to be running). ✓ Check belts for tightness and excessive wear (alternator, water pump, air compressor). Learn how much "give" the belts should have when adjusted right and check each one. ✓ Leaks in the engine compartment (fuel, coolant, oil, power steering fluid, hydraulic fluid, battery fluid). ✓ Cracked, worn electrical wiring insulation. ✓ Lower and secure hood, cab, or engine compartment door.
Step 3: Start Engine and Inspect Inside the
Cab
Get in and Start Engine
✓ Make sure parking brake is on. ✓ Put gearshift in neutral (or "park" if automatic). ✓ Start engine; listen for unusual noises. If equipped, check the Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) indicator lights. Light on dash should come on and then turn off. If it stays on the ABS is not working properly. For trailers only, if the yellow light on the left rear of the trailer stays on, the ABS is not working properly.
Look at the Gauges
✓ Oil pressure. Should come up to normal within seconds after engine is started. See Figure 2. ✓ Air pressure. Pressure should build from 50 to 90 psi within 3 minutes. Build air pressure to governor cut- out (usually around 120 – 140 psi. Know your vehicle’s requirements. ✓ Ammeter and/or voltmeter. Should be in normal range(s). ✓ Coolant temperature. Should begin gradual rise to normal operating range. ✓ Engine oil temperature. Should begin gradual rise to normal operating range. ✓ Warning lights and buzzers. Oil, coolant, charging circuit warning, and antilock brake system lights should go out right away.
Check Condition of Controls
Check all of the following for looseness, sticking, damage, or improper setting: ✓ Steering wheel. ✓ Clutch. ✓ Accelerator ("gas pedal"). ✓ Brake controls:
- Foot brake.
- Trailer brake (if vehicle has one).
- Parking brake.
- Retarder controls (if vehicle has them). ✓ Transmission controls. ✓ Interaxle differential lock (if vehicle has one). ✓ Horn(s). ✓ Windshield wiper/washer. ✓ Lights:
- Headlights.
- Dimmer switch.
- Turn signal.
- Four-way flashers.
- Parking, clearance, identification, marker switch(es). Figure 2.
Check Mirrors and Windshield
Inspect mirrors and windshield for cracks, dirt, illegal stickers, or other obstructions to seeing clearly. Clean and adjust as necessary.
Check Emergency Equipment
✓ Check for safety equipment:
- Spare electrical fuses (unless vehicle has circuit breakers).
- Three red reflective triangles, 6 fuses or 3 liquid burning flares.
- Properly charged and rated fire extinguisher. ✓ Check for optional items such as:
- Chains (where winter conditions require).
- Tire changing equipment. ✓ List of emergency phone numbers ✓ Accident reporting kit (packet). ✓ Check Safety Belt. Check that the safety belt is securely mounted, adjusts; latches properly and is not ripped or frayed.
Step 4: Turn Off Engine and Check Lights
Make sure the parking brake is set, turn off the engine, and take the key with you. Turn on headlights (low beams) and four-way emergency flashers and get out of the vehicle.
Step 5: Do Walk-around Inspection
✓ Go to front of vehicle and check that low beams are on and both of the four-way flashers are working. ✓ Push dimmer switch and check that high beams work. ✓ Turn off headlights and four-way emergency flashers. ✓ Turn on parking, clearance, side-marker, and identification lights. ✓ Turn on right turn signal and start walk-around inspection.
General
✓ Walk around and inspect. ✓ Clean all lights, reflectors, and glass as you go along.
Left Front Side
✓ Driver's door glass should be clean. ✓ Door latches or locks should work properly. ✓ Left front wheel:
- Condition of wheel and rim--missing, bent, broken studs, clamps, lugs, or any signs of misalignment.
- Condition of tires--properly inflated, valve stem and cap OK, no serious cuts, bulges, or tread wear.
- Use wrench to test rust-streaked lug nuts, indicating looseness.
- Hub oil level OK, no leaks. ✓ Left front suspension:
- Condition of spring, spring hangers, shackles, u-bolts.
- Shock absorber condition. ✓ Left front brake:
- Condition of brake drum or disc.
- Condition of hoses.
Front
✓ Condition of front axle. ✓ Condition of steering system.
- No loose, worn, bent, damaged or missing parts.
- Must grab steering mechanism to test for looseness. ✓ Condition of windshield.
- Check for damage and clean if dirty.
- Check windshield wiper arms for proper spring tension.
- Check wiper blades for damage, "stiff" rubber, and securement. ✓ Lights and reflectors.
- Parking, clearance, and identification lights clean, operating, and proper color (amber at front).
- Reflectors clean and proper color (amber at front).
- Right front turn signal light clean, operating, and proper color (amber or white on signals facing forward).
Right Side
✓ Right front: check all items as done on left front. ✓ Primary and secondary safety cab locks engaged (if cab-over-engine design). ✓ Right fuel tank(s).
- Securely mounted, not damaged, or leaking.
- Fuel crossover line secure.
- Tank(s) contain enough fuel.
- Cap(s) on and secure. ✓ Condition of visible parts.
- Rear of engine--not leaking.
- Transmission--not leaking.
✓ Turn on stop lights (apply trailer hand brake or have a helper put on the brake pedal). ✓ Turn on left turn signal lights.
Get Out and Check Lights
✓ Left front turn signal light clean, operating and proper color (amber or white on signals facing the front). ✓ Left rear turn signal light and both stop lights clean, operating, and proper color (red, yellow, or amber).
Get In Vehicle
✓ Turn off lights not needed for driving. ✓ Check for all required papers, trip manifests, permits, etc. ✓ Secure all loose articles in cab (they might interfere with operation of the controls or hit you in a crash). ✓ Start the engine.
Step 7: Start the Engine and Check
Test for Hydraulic Leaks
If the vehicle has hydraulic brakes, pump the brake pedal three times. Then apply firm pressure to the pedal and hold for five seconds. The pedal should not move. If it does, there may be a leak or other problem. Get it fixed before driving. If the vehicle has air brakes, do the checks described in Sections 5 and 6 of this manual.
Brake System
Test Parking Brake(s)
✓ Fasten safety belt ✓ Set parking brake (power unit only). ✓ Release trailer parking brake (if applicable). ✓ Place vehicle into a low gear. ✓ Gently pull forward against parking brake to make sure the parking brake holds. ✓ Repeat the same steps for the trailer with trailer parking brake set and power unit parking brakes released (if applicable). If it doesn't hold vehicle, it is faulty; get it fixed.
Test Service Brake Stopping Action
✓ Go about five miles per hour. ✓ Push brake pedal firmly ✓ "Pulling" to one side or the other can mean brake trouble. ✓ Any unusual brake pedal "feel" or delayed stopping action can mean trouble. If you find anything unsafe during the Vehicle inspection, get it fixed. Federal and state laws forbid operating an unsafe vehicle.
2.1.6 – Inspection During a Trip
Check Vehicle Operation Regularly
You should check: ✓ Instruments. ✓ Air pressure gauge (if you have air brakes). ✓ Temperature gauges. ✓ Pressure gauges. ✓ Ammeter/voltmeter. ✓ Mirrors. ✓ Tires. ✓ Cargo, cargo covers. ✓ Lights, etc. If you see, hear, smell, or feel anything that might mean trouble, check it out.
Safety Inspection
Drivers of trucks and truck tractors when transporting cargo must inspect the securement of the cargo within the first 50 miles of a trip and every 150 miles or every three hours (whichever comes first) after.
2.1.7 – After-trip Inspection and Report
You may have to make a written report each day on the condition of the vehicle(s) you drove. Report anything affecting safety or possibly leading to mechanical breakdown.
Subsection 2.
Test Your Knowledge
The vehicle inspection report tells the motor carrier about problems that may need fixing. Keep a copy of your report in the vehicle for one day. That way, the next driver can learn about any problems you have found.
- What is the most important reason for doing a vehicle inspection?
- What things should you check during a trip?
- Name some key steering system parts.
- Name some suspension system defects.
- What three kinds of emergency equipment must you have?
- What is the minimum tread depth for front tires? For other tires?
- Name some things you should check on the front of your vehicle during the walk around inspection.
- What should wheel bearing seals be checked for?
- How many red reflective triangles should you carry?
- How do you test hydraulic brakes for leaks?
- Why put the starter switch key in your pocket during the Vehicle inspection? These questions may be on your test. If you can’t answer them all, re-read subsection 2.1.
2.2 – Basic Control of Your Vehicle
To drive a vehicle safely, you must be able to control its speed and direction. Safe operation of a commercial vehicle requires skill in: ✓ Accelerating. ✓ Steering. ✓ Stopping. ✓ Backing safely. Fasten your seatbelt when on the road. Apply the parking brake when you leave your vehicle.
2.2.1 – Accelerating
Don't roll back when you start. You may hit someone behind you. If you have a manual transmission vehicle, partly engage the clutch before you take your right foot off the brake. Put on the parking brake whenever necessary to keep from rolling back. Release the parking brake only when you have applied enough engine power to keep from rolling back. On a tractor-trailer equipped with a trailer brake hand valve, the hand valve can be applied to keep from rolling back. Speed up smoothly and gradually so the vehicle does not jerk. Rough acceleration can cause mechanical damage. When pulling a trailer, rough acceleration can damage the coupling. Speed up very gradually when traction is poor, as in rain or snow. If you use too much power, the drive wheels may spin. You could lose control. If the drive wheels begin to spin, take your foot off the accelerator.
2.2.2 – Steering
Hold the steering wheel firmly with both hands. Your hands should be on opposite sides of the wheel. If you hit a curb or a pothole (chuckhole), the wheel could pull away from your hands unless you have a firm hold.
2.2.3 – Stopping
Push the brake pedal down gradually. The amount of brake pressure you need to stop the vehicle will depend on the speed of the vehicle and how quickly you need to stop. Control the pressure so the vehicle comes to a smooth, safe stop. If you have a manual transmission, push the clutch in when the engine is close to idle.
2.2.4 – Backing Safely
Because you cannot see everything behind your vehicle, backing is always dangerous. Avoid backing whenever you can. When you park, try to park so you will be able to pull forward when you leave. When you have to back, here are a few simple safety rules: ✓ Start in the proper position. ✓ Look at your path. ✓ Use mirrors on both sides. ✓ Back slowly. ✓ Back and turn toward the driver's side whenever possible. ✓ Use a helper whenever possible. These rules are discussed in turn below.
Start in the Proper Position
Put the vehicle in the best position to allow you to back safely. This position will depend on the type of backing to be done.
Downshift before starting down the hill. Make sure you are in a low enough gear, usually lower than the gear required to climb the same hill.
- Before Entering a Curve Slow down to a safe speed, and downshift to the right gear before entering the curve. This lets you use some power through the curve to help the vehicle be more stable while turning. It also allows you to speed up as soon as you are out of the curve.
2.3.2 – Multi-speed Rear Axles and Auxiliary
Transmissions
Multi-speed rear axles and auxiliary transmissions are used on many vehicles to provide extra gears. You usually control them by a selector knob or switch on the gearshift lever of the main transmission. There are many different shift patterns. Learn the right way to shift gears in the vehicle you will drive.
2.3.3 – Automatic Transmissions
Some vehicles have automatic transmissions. You can select a low range to get greater engine braking when going down grades. The lower ranges prevent the transmission from shifting up beyond the selected gear (unless the governor rpm is exceeded). It is very important to use this braking effect when going down grades.
2.3.4 – Retarders
Some vehicles have "retarders." Retarders help slow a vehicle, reducing the need for using your brakes. They reduce brake wear and give you another way to slow down. There are four basic types of retarders (exhaust, engine, hydraulic, and electric). All retarders can be turned on or off by the driver. On some vehicles the retarding power can be adjusted. When turned "on," retarders apply their braking power (to the drive wheels only) whenever you let up on the accelerator pedal all the way. Because these devices can be noisy, be sure you know where their use is permitted.
Caution
When your drive wheels have poor traction, the retarder may cause them to skid. Therefore, you should turn the retarder off whenever the road is wet, icy, or snow covered.
Subsections 2.2 and 2.
Test Your Knowledge
- Why should you back toward the driver's side?
- If stopped on a hill, how can you start moving without rolling back?
- When backing, why is it important to use a helper?
- What's the most important hand signal that you and the helper should agree on?
- What are the two special conditions where you should downshift?
- When should you downshift automatic transmissions?
- Retarders keep you from skidding when the road is slippery. True or False?
- What are the two ways to know when to shift? These questions may be on the test. If you can't answer them all, re-read subsections 2.2 and 2.3.
2.4 – Seeing
To be a safe driver you need to know what's going on all around your vehicle. Not looking properly is a major cause of accidents.
2.4.1 – Seeing Ahead
All drivers look ahead; but many don't look far enough ahead.
Importance of Looking Far Enough Ahead
Because stopping or changing lanes can take a lot of distance, knowing what the traffic is doing on all sides of you is very important. You need to look well ahead to make sure you have room to make these moves safely.
How Far Ahead to Look
Most good drivers look at least 12 to 15 seconds ahead. That means looking ahead the distance you will travel in 12 to 15 seconds. At lower speeds, that's about one block. At highway speeds it's about a quarter of a mile. If you're not looking that far ahead, you may have to stop too quickly or make quick lane changes. Looking 12 to 15 seconds ahead doesn't mean not paying attention to things that are closer. Good drivers shift their attention back and forth, near and far. Figure 2.6 illustrates how far to look ahead.
Figure 2.
Look for Traffic
Look for vehicles coming onto the highway, into your lane, or turning. Watch for brake lights from slowing vehicles. By seeing these things far enough ahead, you can change your speed, or change lanes if necessary to avoid a problem. If a traffic light has been green for a long time it will probably change before you get there. Start slowing down and be ready to stop.
2.4.2 – Seeing to the Sides and Rear
It's important to know what's going on behind and to the sides. Check your mirrors regularly. Check more often in special situations.
Mirror Adjustment
Mirror adjustment should be checked prior to the start of any trip and can only be checked accurately when the trailer(s) are straight. You should check and adjust each mirror to show some part of the vehicle. This will give you a reference point for judging the position of the other images.
Regular Checks
You need to make regular checks of your mirrors to be aware of traffic and to check your vehicle.
Traffic
Check your mirrors for vehicles on either side and in back of you. In an emergency, you may need to know whether you can make a quick lane change. Use your mirrors to spot overtaking vehicles. There are "blind spots" that your mirrors cannot show you. Check your mirrors regularly to know where other vehicles are around you, and to see if they move into your blind spots.
Check Your Vehicle
Use the mirrors to keep an eye on your tires. It's one way to spot a tire fire. If you're carrying open cargo, you can use the mirrors to check it. Look for loose straps, ropes, or chains. Watch for a flapping or ballooning tarp.
Special Situations
Special situations require more than regular mirror checks. These are lane changes, turns, merges, and tight maneuvers.
Lane Changes
You need to check your mirrors to make sure no one is alongside you or about to pass you. Check your mirrors: ✓ Before you change lanes to make sure there is enough room. ✓ After you have signaled, to check that no one has moved into your blind spot. ✓ Right after you start the lane change, to double-check that your path is clear. ✓ After you complete the lane change.
Turns
In turns, check your mirrors to make sure the rear of your vehicle will not hit anything.
Merges
When merging, use your mirrors to make sure the gap in traffic is large enough for you to enter safely.
Tight Maneuvers
Any time you are driving in close quarters, check your mirrors often. Make sure you have enough clearance.
How to Use Mirrors
Use mirrors correctly by checking them quickly and understanding what you see. ✓ When you use your mirrors while driving on the road, check quickly. Look back and forth between the mirrors and the road ahead. Don't focus on the mirrors for too long. Otherwise, you will travel quite a distance without knowing what's happening ahead. Many large vehicles have curved (convex, "fisheye," "spot," "bug-eye") mirrors that show a wider area than flat mirrors. This is often helpful. But everything appears smaller in a convex mirror than it would if you were looking at it directly. Things also seem farther away than they really are. It's important to realize this and to allow for it. Figure 2.7 shows the field of vision using a convex mirror.
or clearance lights. Use the low beams; high beams can bother people in the daytime as well as at night.
When Parked at the Side of the Road
When you pull off the road and stop, be sure to turn on the four-way emergency flashers. This is important at night. Don't trust the taillights to give warning. Drivers have crashed into the rear of a parked vehicle because they thought it was moving normally. If you must stop on a road or the shoulder of any road, you must put out your emergency warning devices within ten minutes. Place your warning devices at the following locations: ✓ If you must stop on or by a one-way or divided highway, place warning devices 10 feet, 100 feet, and 200 feet toward the approaching traffic. See Figure 2.8. Figure 2. ✓ If you stop on a two-lane road carrying traffic in both directions or on an undivided highway, place warning devices within 10 feet of the front or rear corners to mark the location of the vehicle and 100 feet behind and ahead of the vehicle, on the shoulder or in the lane you stopped in. See Figure 2.9. Figure 2. ✓ Back beyond any hill, curve, or other obstruction that prevents other drivers from seeing the vehicle within 500 feet. If line of sight view is obstructed due to hill or curve, move the rear-most triangle to a point back down the road so warning is provided. See Figure 2.10. Figure 2. When putting out the triangles, hold them between yourself and the oncoming traffic for your own safety. (So other drivers can see you.)
Use Your Horn When Needed
Your horn can let others know you're there. It can help to avoid a crash. Use your horn when needed. However, it can startle others and could be dangerous when used unnecessarily.
2.6 – Controlling Speed
Driving too fast is a major cause of fatal crashes. You must adjust your speed depending on driving conditions. These include traction, curves, visibility, traffic and hills.
2.6.1 – Stopping Distance
Perception Distance + Reaction Distance + Braking Distance = Total Stopping Distance
Perception Distance
The distance your vehicle travels, in ideal conditions; from the time your eyes see a hazard until your brain recognizes it. Keep in mind certain mental and physical conditions can affect your perception distance. It can be affected greatly depending on visibility and the hazard itself. The average perception time for an alert driver is 1¾ seconds. At 55 mph this accounts for 142 feet traveled.
Reaction Distance
The distance you will continue to travel, in ideal conditions; before you physically hit the brakes, in response to a hazard seen ahead. The average driver has a reaction time of ¾ second to 1 second. At 55 mph this accounts for 61 feet traveled.
Braking Distance
The distance your vehicle will travel, in ideal conditions; while you are braking. At 55 mph on dry pavement with good brakes, it can take about 216 feet.
Total Stopping Distance
The total minimum distance your vehicle has traveled, in ideal conditions; with everything considered, including perception distance, reaction distance and braking distance, until you can bring your vehicle to a complete stop. At 55 mph, your vehicle will travel a minimum of 419 feet. See Figure 2.11. Figure 2.
The Effect of Speed on Stopping Distance
The faster you drive, the greater the impact or striking power of your vehicle. When you double your speed from 20 to 40 mph the impact is 4 times greater. The braking distance is also 4 times longer. Triple the speed from 20 to 60 mph and the impact and braking distance is 9 times greater. At 60 mph, your stopping distance is greater than the length of a football field. Increase the speed to 80 mph and the impact and braking distance are 16 times greater than at 20 mph. High speeds greatly increase the severity of crashes and stopping distances. By slowing down, you can reduce braking distance.
The Effect of Vehicle Weight on Stopping
Distance
The heavier the vehicle, the more work the brakes must do to stop it and the more heat they absorb. But the brakes, tires, springs, and shock absorbers on heavy vehicles are designed to work best when the vehicle is fully loaded. Empty trucks require greater stopping distances because an empty vehicle has less traction.
2 .6.2 – Matching Speed to the Road Surface
You can't steer or brake a vehicle unless you have traction. Traction is friction between the tires and the road. There are some road conditions that reduce traction and call for lower speeds.
Slippery Surfaces
It will take longer to stop, and it will be harder to turn without skidding, when the road is slippery. Wet roads can double stopping distance. You must drive slower to be able to stop in the same distance as on a dry road. Reduce speed by about one-third (e.g., slow from 55 to about 35 mph) on a wet road. On packed snow, reduce speed by a half, or more. If the surface is icy, reduce
speed on downgrades. The braking effect of the engine is greatest when it is near the governed rpms and the transmission is in the lower gears. Save your brakes so you will be able to slow or stop as required by road and traffic conditions. Shift your transmission to a low gear before starting down the grade and use the proper braking techniques. Please read carefully the section on going down long, steep downgrades safely in "Mountain Driving."
2.6.7 – Roadway Work Zones
Speeding traffic is the number one cause of injury and death in roadway work zones. Observe the posted speed limits at all times when approaching and driving through a work zone. Watch your speedometer, and don’t allow your speed to creep up as you drive through long sections of road construction. Decrease your speed for adverse weather or road conditions. Decrease your speed even further when a worker is close to the roadway.
Subsections 2.4, 2.5, and 2.
Test Your Knowledge
- How far ahead does the manual say you should look?
- What are two main things to look for ahead?
- What's your most important way to see the sides and rear of your vehicle?
- What does "communicating" mean in safe driving?
- Where should you place reflectors when stopped on a divided highway?
- What three things add up to total stopping distance?
- If you go twice as fast, will your stopping distance increase by two or four times?
- Empty trucks have the best braking. True or False?
- What is hydroplaning?
- What is "black ice”? These questions may be on the test. If you can't answer them all, re-read subsections 2.4, 2.5, and 2.6.
2.7 – Managing Space
To be a safe driver, you need space all around your vehicle. When things go wrong, space gives you time to think and to take action. To have space available when something goes wrong, you need to manage space. While this is true for all drivers, it is very important for large vehicles. They take up more space and they require more space for stopping and turning.
2.7.1 – Space Ahead
Of all the space around your vehicle, it is the area ahead of the vehicle--the space you're driving into --that is most important.
The Need for Space Ahead
You need space ahead in case you must suddenly stop. According to accident reports, the vehicle that trucks and buses most often run into is the one in front of them. The most frequent cause is following too closely. Remember, if the vehicle ahead of you is smaller than yours, it can probably stop faster than you can. You may crash if you are following too closely.
How Much Space?
How much space should you keep in front of you? One good rule says you need at least one second for each 10 feet of vehicle length at speeds below 40 mph. At greater speeds, you must add 1 second for safety. For example, if you are driving a 40-foot vehicle, you should leave 4 seconds between you and the vehicle ahead. In a 60-foot rig, you'll need 6 seconds. Over 40 mph, you'd need 5 seconds for a 40-foot vehicle and 7 seconds for a 60-foot vehicle. See Figure 2.12. To know how much space you have, wait until the vehicle ahead passes a shadow on the road, a pavement marking, or some other clear landmark. Then count off the seconds like this: "one thousand- and-one, one thousand-and-two" and so on, until you reach the same spot. Compare your count with the rule of one second for every ten feet of length. If you are driving a 40-foot truck and only counted up to 2 seconds, you're too close. Drop back a little and count again until you have 4 seconds of following distance (or 5 seconds, if you're going over 40 mph). After a little practice, you will know how far back you should be. Remember to add 1 second for speeds above 40 mph. Also remember that when the road is slippery, you need much more space to stop.
Figure 2.
2.7.2 – Space Behind
You can't stop others from following you too closely. But there are things you can do to make it safer.
Stay to the Right
Heavy vehicles are often tailgated when they can't keep up with the speed of traffic. This often happens when you're going uphill. If a heavy load is slowing you down, stay in the right lane if you can. Going uphill, you should not pass another slow vehicle unless you can get around quickly and safely.
Dealing with Tailgaters Safely
In a large vehicle, it's often hard to see whether a vehicle is close behind you. You may be tailgated: ✓ When you are traveling slowly. Drivers trapped behind slow vehicles often follow closely. ✓ In bad weather. Many car drivers follow large vehicles closely during bad weather, especially when it is hard to see the road ahead. If you find yourself being tailgated, here are some things you can do to reduce the chances of a crash: ✓ Avoid quick changes. If you have to slow down or turn, signal early, and reduce speed very gradually. ✓ Increase your following distance. Opening up room in front of you will help you to avoid having to make sudden speed or direction changes. It also makes it easier for the tailgater to get around you. ✓ Don't speed up. It's safer to be tailgated at a low speed than a high speed. ✓ Avoid tricks. Don't turn on your taillights or flash your brake lights. Follow the suggestions above.
2.7.3 – Space to the Sides
Commercial vehicles are often wide and take up most of a lane. Safe drivers will manage what little space they have. You can do this by keeping your vehicle centered in your lane and avoid driving alongside others.
Staying Centered in a Lane
You need to keep your vehicle centered in the lane to keep safe clearance on either side. If your vehicle is wide, you have little room to spare.
Traveling Next to Others
There are two dangers in traveling alongside other vehicles: ✓ Another driver may change lanes suddenly and turn into you. ✓ You may be trapped when you need to change lanes. Find an open spot where you aren't near other traffic. When traffic is heavy, it may be hard to find an open spot. If you must travel near other vehicles, try to keep as much space as possible between you and them. Also, drop back or pull forward so that you are sure the other driver can see you.
Strong Winds
Strong winds make it difficult to stay in your lane. The problem is usually worse for lighter vehicles. This problem can be especially bad coming out of tunnels. Don't drive alongside others if you can avoid it.
2.7.4 – Space Overhead
Hitting overhead objects is a danger. Make sure you always have overhead clearance. ✓ Don't assume that the heights posted at bridges and overpasses are correct. Re-paving or packed snow may have reduced the clearances since the heights were posted. ✓ The weight of a cargo van changes its height. An empty van is higher than a loaded one. That you got under a bridge when you were loaded does not mean that you can do it when you are empty.
2.8 – Seeing Hazards
2.8.1 – Importance of Seeing Hazards
What is a Hazard?
A hazard is any road condition or other road user (driver, bicyclist, pedestrian) that is a possible danger. For example, a car in front of you is headed toward the freeway exit, but his brake lights come on and he begins braking hard. This could mean that the driver is uncertain about taking the off ramp. He might suddenly return to the highway. This car is a hazard. If the driver of the car cuts in front of you, it is no longer just a hazard; it is an emergency.
Seeing Hazards Lets You Be Prepared
You will have more time to act if you see hazards before they become emergencies. In the example above, you might make a lane change or slow down to prevent a crash if the car suddenly cuts in front of you. Seeing this hazard gives you time to check your mirrors and signal a lane change. Being prepared reduces the danger. A driver who did not see the hazard until the slow car pulled back on the highway in front of him would have to do something very suddenly. Sudden braking or a quick lane change is much more likely to lead to a crash.
Learning to See Hazards
There are often clues that will help you see hazards. The more you drive, the better you can learn to see hazards. This section will talk about hazards that you should be aware of.
2.8.2 – Hazardous Roads
Move-over Laws
The incidents of law enforcement officers, emergency medical services, fire department personnel and people working on the road are being struck while performing duties at the roadside are increasing at a frightening pace. To lessen the problem, move-over laws have been enacted, which require drivers to slow and change lanes when approaching a roadside incident or emergency vehicle. Signs are posted on roadways in states that have such laws. When approaching an authorized emergency vehicle stopped on the roadside or a work zone, you should proceed with caution by slowing and yielding the right-of- way by making a lane change into a lane not next to that of the authorized emergency vehicle or work zone if safety and traffic conditions permit. If a lane change is unsafe, slow down and proceed with caution while maintaining a safe speed for traffic conditions. Slow down and be very careful if you see any of the following road hazards.
Work Zones
When people are working on the road, it is a hazard. There may be narrower lanes, sharp turns, or uneven surfaces. Other drivers are often distracted and drive unsafely. Workers and construction vehicles may get in the way. Drive slowly and carefully near work zones. Use your four- way flashers or brake lights to warn drivers behind you.
Drop Off
Sometimes the pavement drops off sharply near the edge of the road. Driving too near the edge can tilt your vehicle toward the side of the road. This can cause the top of your vehicle to hit roadside objects (signs, tree limbs). Also, it can be hard to steer as you cross the drop off, going off the road, or coming back on.
Foreign Objects
Things that have fallen on the road can be hazards. They can be a danger to your tires and wheel rims. They can damage electrical and brake lines. They can be caught between dual tires and cause severe damage. Some obstacles that appear to be harmless can be very dangerous. For example, cardboard boxes may be empty, but they may also contain some solid or heavy material capable of causing damage. The same is true of paper and cloth sacks. It is important to remain alert for objects of all sorts, so you can see them early enough to avoid them without making sudden, unsafe moves.
Off Ramps/On Ramps
Freeway and turnpike exits can be particularly dangerous for commercial vehicles. Off ramps and on ramps often have speed limit signs posted. Remember, these speeds may be safe for automobiles, but may not be safe for larger vehicles or heavily loaded vehicles. Exits that go downhill and turn at the same time can be especially dangerous. The downgrade makes it difficult to reduce speed. Braking and turning at the same time can be a dangerous practice. Make sure you are going slowly enough before you get on the curved part of an off ramp or on ramp.
2.8.3 – Drivers Who are Hazards
In order to protect yourself and others, you must know when other drivers may do something hazardous. Some clues to this type of hazard are discussed below.
Blocked Vision
People who can't see others are a very dangerous hazard. Be alert for drivers whose vision is blocked. Vans, loaded station wagons, and cars with the rear window blocked are examples. Rental trucks should be watched carefully. Their drivers are often not used to the limited vision they have to the sides and rear of the truck. In winter, vehicles
with frosted, ice-covered, or snow-covered windows are hazards. Vehicles may be partly hidden by blind intersections or alleys. If you only can see the rear or front end of a vehicle but not the driver, then he or she can't see you. Be alert because he/she may back out or enter into your lane. Always be prepared to stop.
Delivery Trucks Can Present a Hazard
Packages or vehicle doors often block the driver’s vision. Drivers of step vans, postal vehicles, and local delivery vehicles often are in a hurry and may suddenly step out of their vehicle or drive their vehicle into the traffic lane.
Parked Vehicles Can Be Hazards
Parked vehicles can be hazards, especially when people start to get out of them. Or, they may suddenly start up and drive into your way. Watch for movement inside the vehicle or movement of the vehicle itself that shows people are inside. Watch for brake lights or backup lights, exhaust, and other clues that a driver is about to move. Be careful of a stopped bus. Passengers may cross in front of or behind the bus, and they often can't see you.
Pedestrians and Bicyclists Can Also Be
Hazards
Walkers, joggers, and bicyclists may be on the road with their back to the traffic, so they can't see you. Sometimes they wear portable stereos with headsets, so they can't hear you either. This can be dangerous. On rainy days, pedestrians may not see you because of hats or umbrellas. They may be hurrying to get out of the rain and may not pay attention to the traffic.
Distractions
People who are distracted are hazards. Watch for where they are looking. If they are looking elsewhere, they can't see you. But be alert even when they are looking at you. They may believe that they have the right of way.
Children
Children tend to act quickly without checking traffic. Children playing with one another may not look for traffic and are a serious hazard.
Talkers
Drivers or pedestrians talking to one another may not be paying close attention to the traffic.
Workers
People working on or near the roadway are a hazard clue. The work creates a distraction for other drivers and the workers themselves may not see you.
Ice Cream Trucks
Someone selling ice cream is a hazard clue. Children may be nearby and may not see you.
Disabled Vehicles
Drivers changing a tire or fixing an engine often do not pay attention to the danger that roadway traffic is to them. They are often careless. Jacked up wheels or raised hoods are hazard clues.
Accidents
Accidents are particularly hazardous. People involved in the accident may not look for traffic. Passing drivers tend to look at the accident. People often run across the road without looking. Vehicles may slow or stop suddenly.
Shoppers
People in and around shopping areas are often not watching traffic because they are looking for stores or looking into store windows.
Confused Drivers
Confused drivers often change direction suddenly or stop without warning. Confusion is common near freeway or turnpike interchanges and major intersections. Tourists unfamiliar with the area can be very hazardous. Clues to tourists include car-top luggage and out-of-state license plates. Unexpected actions (stopping in the middle of a block, changing lanes for no apparent reason, backup lights suddenly going on) are clues to confusion. Hesitation is another clue, including driving very slowly, using brakes often, or stopping in the middle of an intersection. You may also see drivers who are looking at street signs, maps, and house numbers. These drivers may not be paying attention to you.
Slow Drivers
Motorists who fail to maintain normal speed are hazards. Seeing slow moving vehicles early can prevent a crash. Some vehicles, by their nature, are slow and seeing them is a hazard clue (mopeds, farm machinery, construction machinery, tractors, etc.). Some of these will have the "slow moving vehicle" symbol to warn you. This is a red triangle with an orange center. Watch for it.
