Download SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL CONSTRAINTS OF WOMEN IN PAKISTAN. and more Thesis Economics in PDF only on Docsity!
Sarhad J. Agric. Vol.24, No.3, 2008
SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL CONSTRAINTS OF WOMEN IN PAKISTAN
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO MARDAN DISTRICT, NWFP PROVINCE
Mohammad Jalal-ud-Din* and Munir Khan**
ABSTRACT
This study was carried out in district Mardan, North West Frontier Province, Pakistan during 2006. The basic purpose of the study was to analyze the socio-economic and cultural constraints of women in the research area. Primary data were collected from 100 respondents randomly selected in two villages namely Moheb Banda and Zando Dheri. The results show that socio- economic status of women was worse because of low literacy rate, lack of educational facilities, awareness, poor economic condition, lack of skills and insecure environment of the society for working women. Men have more decision-making power than the women regarding family, choice of selecting male partners and household expenditure. In certain cases only elderly women were consulted for opinion in decision-making. Women were culturally constrained to remain at home and care for their children. Majority of the sampled respondents were in favour of getting formal education but only few of them were able to take independent decision in getting formal education. Independent decisions about family type, level of income, landholding and level of literacy of the sampled respondents had no significant effect on the living standard. Similarly the education of a household’s head had no significant effect on the literacy level of the sampled respondents. After studying and analyzing the socio-economic and cultural status of the women in selected areas of district Mardan, it is to recommend that female education is essential for the economic development of the area. For this purpose better educational facilities should be provided for women. Moreover, promotion of research on the conditions and problems of women is essential. Also Employment opportunities should be provided for women by establishing cottage and agro-based industries.
Key words: Culture, Mardan, Socio-Economic factors, Women, Pakistan
INTRODUCTION
Society throughout the world consists of two sexes (male and female). Though their roles are not uniform throughout the world, but still they have to play their productive role in the society. In underdeveloped world, the strength requiring activities, presumably a male trait, are not strictly apportioned to males. In fact, activities such as burden bearing and water carrying are done more by female than by males (Begum, 2002).
In most societies of the world, particularly in developing countries, household is the world of women, and the public and politics are the world of men. These differences are indirectly due to biological difference in man and woman. Females give birth to children and are equipped to feed the newly born children. They are bound by biology to domestic duties. Males are physically strong and leave their offspring for extended periods and, therefore, are logically more likely to become engaged in activities such as hunting and fighting and other socio-economic activities (Ramesh, 2000).
In most underdeveloped countries of the world the women as a girl-child has a lower status and enjoys fewer rights, opportunities and benefits of childhood than the boy-child. Women at a very young age experiences inequality and find it very difficult to overcome this inequality (Rizvi, 1980).
Women in Pakistan are facing disadvantages from the time they are born. The birth of a girl is frequently
met with disappointment, even anger, and the blame is usually placed on the mother. As a rule, the girl- child receives less food, less access to education and less health care than a male child. As a result girls are more likely to die of childhood diseases (Population Census, 1991). Investment in girls’ education and skill development is meager. As one women’s organization put it; “The girl is a liability. At an early age the girl-child is made aware that she is only a temporary member of the family. Any skill she learns will benefit not her own family but her in-laws”. It has been reported that those girls who get vocational training have little chance to become teachers in the vocational institutes due to non- availability of employment opportunities and lack of finance (Rizvi, 1980).
According to Amnesty International, school enrolment of girls is low. According women’s organization groups, only 28% of the girls go to primary school, and only 11% of the older girls go to high school. The dropout rate is high. Girls are kept at home to do household chores or to look after younger children when required by the family or when financial position is weak. Only some 24% of the females are literate, compared to 49% of the males. Women’s organization groups estimate that only 12% to 15% of the females can read and write (Hirway and Mahadevia, 1996).
Girls, generally, marry young at around 15 years of age. The birth rate is high. Women give birth to six
- Department of Economics, Islamia College University of Peshawar – Pakistan ** Department of Agriculture Economics, NWFP Agricultural University Peshawar – Pakistan
Mohammad Jalal-ud-Din and Munir Khan. Socio-economic and cultural constraints… 486
children on average and both infant and maternal mortality rates are also high. Women are usually married off in a transaction in which, bride’s price is negotiated through two families. The women is considered and treated as the property of her husband and may not defy him. Wives, it is assumed, have given permanent consent to sexual relation with their husband. Marital rape-intercourse without the consent of the wife is only an offensive if it results into serious injuries. Sexual activity outside marriage is a criminal act for which the law prescribes stringent punishments. Domestic violence against women is widespread and rarely brought to public notice or punished unless the woman dies or suffers gruesome injuries.
Differentiation based on gender is evident, virtually, in every human society. Most people are socialized to hold quite different expectations for women and men. Man has traditionally been assigned as the providers for the family, while women have to take almost total responsibility for childcare and household activities. In addition, one culture views, many forms of works as “Women’s work” or “Men’s work” using as a basis for gender stereotypes. A person’s gender thus becomes a means for categorizing people and is given a distinct social significance. Women and men have assigned with particular social role in every culture. Social scientific research has shown that gender role is not innate but is heavily influenced by culture. In an underdeveloped country like Pakistan, culture considers women as second-class citizens. Therefore, they are deprived of their due rights. They are less consulted in men’s activities.
Objectives of the Study The main objectives of this study are:
i. To describe the socio-economic role and status of rural women in their households and other activities in the study area. ii. To identify socio-economic and cultural constraints faced by rural women in respect to their socio-economic and cultural environment in the study area. iii. To probe into the role of education and mass media in gender awareness. iv. To study the perception of sample respondents regarding their potential role in socio-economic development of the study area. v. To suggest policy recommendations as to how their constraints can be minimized.
Women Status in Pakistan i. Kishwar and Akhtar (1982) claimed that restrictions on the movement of women, their employment, participation in spectator parks, access to education and a prescribed dress code are issues, which downgrade the role of women in the society.
ii. Pakistan is a cultural bounded country where the women participation in paid labour is still very low. For example, Himayatullah and Parveen (1990) pointed out the following factor for low female participation in paid labour: iii. First factor is that like most other underdeveloped countries, in Pakistan the labour force data tend to underestimate the number of economically active women especially in the category of unpaid helpers on farms and other family operated enterprises. iv. In Pakistan the Muslim custom of Purdah also inhibits the employment of women. v. Women are still largely responsible for domestic work and child rearing. They are not as free as men to enter the labour market. vi. Majority of women prefer to stay at home and look after their children. vii. Also the cultural trails not only affect the extent to which women actually engage in income generating activities, but also the reporting of activities during the time of labour force surveys or census.
Women Status in Other Parts of the World The situation in similar developing countries is not much different as Sadie (1995) studied the status of women in rural Africa.
As far as women status in India is concerned, it was reported that conceptual framework for measuring gender development through Gender Development Index (GDI) devised by the UNDP was unsatisfactory, while Gender Development Measure devised by UNDP was found as an appropriate system because it operates at two levels. For example, Hirwav and Mahadevia (1996) found that in 15 major states of India Gender Development Measure, on the one hand, was more comprehensive covering all the critical aspects of gender development and, on the other hand, more useful for policy makers as it presents tailoring indices for different sectors. Also Ramesh (2000) identified gender backward districts among 15 major Indian States using 13 Gender Sensitive Indicators (GSI). Variables included in this exercise were indicative of the demographic, educational, health-related, social, cultural and economic status of the women. In the
Mohammad Jalal-ud-Din and Munir Khan. Socio-economic and cultural constraints… 488
Table ΙΙΙ illustrates that 53% male members of the sampled respondents, which is a majority, had a monthly income of Rs. 1500-2000. The remaining 24%, 13% and 10% were in the range of Rs. 1500, Rs. 2000-3000 and above Rs. 3000 respectively.
The male members of the sampled respondents with an income of Rs. 3000 is an evidence that high- income group has comparatively more land holding than the other groups. Male members of the sampled respondents with monthly income between 1500 and 2000 are tenants cum labourers who were having subsistence holdings of land and their income was seasonal rather monthly.
Constraints to Respondents in the Performance of their Activities In villages Moheb Banda and Zando Dheri, all of the respondents had to observe purdah and carry out their stated economic activities inside their houses. They were strictly restricted to their indoor activities and prohibited to work outside. About 100% of the respondents declared that they were allowed to participate in various indoor economic activities.
Table ΙV illustrates the position of the sampled respondents constrained in performing their economic activities.
It can be seen from Table ΙV that all the sampled respondents in both villages perform their socio- economic activities indoor, which means that they are strictly constrained to house activities of child rearing, cooking, and engaged in feeding the livestock.
Attitude of Husband / Father / Household Head and Other Family Members Indeed, in underdeveloped countries the women is considered and treated as the property of her husband and may not defy him. At paternal house, a girl is absolutely subdued to the head of the house and other members of the family. Table V illustrates the attitude of the family members of both sides towards the woman.
Different attitudes of husband/father/household head towards women may be seen from Table V. In Moheb Banda 11% of the total respondents said that their household heads are very polite to them. About 39% of the total respondents expressed the behaviour of their elders as normal, while 50% of the total respondents said that the attitudes of their elders are harsh. In villages Zando Dheri 10% of the total respondents said that their elders are very polite to them, while 33% were of the opinion that their husband/father/household heads are normal and 57%
of the total respondents said that the attitudes of their elders and husbands are harsh. From the above explanation it is obvious that majority of the women are living a constrained life.
Availability of Health Facilities and Source of Treatment to the Sampled Respondents The data in Tables VΙ shows that 42% and 50% of the sampled respondents in Moheb Banda consulted doctors and hakeems respectively for medical treatment. Other 8% believed in domestic prescription, while no one visited Pir Sahib. In Zando Dheri, 38% and 57% of the sampled respondents consulted doctors and hakeems respectively. Other 5% believed in domestic prescription while no one consulted Pir Sahib. During the survey, majority of the sampled respondents were of the opinion that availability of health facilities were not of standard quality and hospitals did not have proper medicines and staff members as will be shown in Table VΙΙ. They said that in case of serious diseases they were to go to urban areas.
Table VΙΙ shows that majority of the sampled respondents i.e., about 87% in both villages have no health facilities. Only 2%, 3%, 5% and 3% in Moheb Banda were having hospital, GHU, Dispenaries and Hospital cum Dispensary facilities respectively.
Marital Status of the Sampled Respondents Marriage is the emotional, physical and social union of two adults. Marriages vary in different societies depending on varying customs, rituals and traditional forms. Table VIII shows the marital status of the sampled respondents in the study area.
It may be seen from Table VΙΙΙ that in the study area the sampled respondents are in favour of early marriages. Therefore majority of the sampled respondents (83%) were found married. Only 13% of the total sampled respondents were reported unmarried and 4% were found to be widow.
Distribution Regarding Marriage and Choice of Selecting Male Partners of the Sampled Respondents In rural society woman has not been given independent right to enter into marital relationship at their own will. She is considered incapable of choosing her life partners because of her mental capacity being considered inferior. Table IX shows the choice of selecting male partners.
It is clear from the Table ΙΧ that 39% of the sampled respondents showed their consideration regarding marriage and 61% did not. The data also revealed
Sarhad J. Agric. Vol.24, No.3, 2008 489
that 11% of the sampled respondents had the choice to select their male partners on their own while 89% had no choice to do so.
CONCLUSION
The main aim of this study was to analyze and examine the socio-economic and cultural constraints of women in the rural areas of district Mardan, North West Frontier Province, Pakistan. For this purpose two villages were selected randomly and total 100 respondents out of 1000 households were interviewed, i.e. 60 from Moheb Banda and 40 from Zando Dheri. In conclusion one can say that the socio-economic and cultural societal status of women in the selected areas was very poor due to lack of formal education. This lack of education and low literacy level contributed to woman’s ignorance in the society in terms of decision-making employment. The low level of economic status of women was due to lack of availability of earning skills on the one hand and cultural constraints on the other hand.
RECOMMENDATIONS
In the light of findings in the study areas, the following recommendations are proposed for the improvement in the socio-economic condition of the women in rural areas.
i. Better educational facilities for female should be provided, which is acceptable to local community. For this purpose formal as well as informal meetings between government officials and elders of the rural areas should take place when necessary. ii. There should also be routine meetings between elders and educated people of the area to make it understandable for the uneducated, that women can also play an important role in the socio- economic uplift of the area, which may have repercussions for the country in general. iii. Federal government should take effective measures to provide educational, health and employment opportunities for women. iv. Women should be given appropriate training for the improvement of working environment in the area. v. Various social welfare organizations can also take part for the socio-economic uplift of the rural women. vi. Various cottage industries by the public as well as private sectors should be established to provide job opportunities to rural women so that they can earn income and help their heads in household’s expenses. vii. For providing better health facilities to the rural women, public and private sectors should open more hospitals, BHU and dispensaries.
Table ΙΙΙΙ. Educational status of the sampled respondents
Sarhad J. Agric. Vol.24, No.3, 2008 491
Table V. Attitude of husband/father/household head and other family members
Table V ΙΙΙΙ. Distribution of sampled respondents according to the source of treatment
Table V ΙΙΙΙΙΙΙΙ. Distribution of sampled respondents according to availability of health facilities
Source: Survey 2006
Mohammad Jalal-ud-Din and Munir Khan. Socio-economic and cultural constraints… 492
Table V ΙΙΙΙΙΙΙΙΙΙΙΙ. Distribution of sampled respondents according to marital status
Table ΙΙΧΙΙΧΧΧ. Distribution of sampled respondents According to Opinion Regarding Marriage and Choice of Selecting Male Partners
Source: Survey 2006
REFERENCES
Adams, L. 1997. Participatory Oppression: A gender analysis of community resource conservation, Solomon Islands, 11: 72. Begum, A.G. Dijkstra. 2002. Measuring socio-economic gender inequality in: Towards an alternative to the UNDP gender-related development index. Working Paper Series. Instt. of Social Studies, The Hague, 251: 30. Hancock, P. 2001. Rural women earning income in Indonesian factories: The impact on gender relations. In: Gender Development, Geneva, 9:1: 18-24. Himayatullah and S. Parveen. 1990. Interrelationship between population and status of women. In: J. Rural Dev. and Administ. (JORDA), Pak. Acad. for Rural Dev. Vol. XXII (2): 113-119. Hirway, I. and D. Mahadevia. 1996. Critique of gender development index towards an alternative. In: Economic and Political Weekly. 31: 43.
Khan, A. R. 1997. Social action programme in Balochistan: Prospects and problems. Deptt of Commerce, Quetta. Asian Profile: 259- Kishwar, I. and P. Akhtar. 1982. Investigation into the pattern and problem of improving rural women skills, Women Div. Cabinet Sectt. Govt. of Pakistan: 5 Lagerweij, I. and C. Vulto. 1999. Implementing a participatory gender-based approach in Balochistan. 18:1: 5- Mehretu, P., 2001. The plight of women in the margins of rural life in Africa; the case of Zimbabwe. Globalization and marginality in geographical space, in: A political, economical and social issue of gender development in the new millennium: 279- Population Census Govt. of Pakistan. 1990-1991. Manpower and social welfare, 399.
