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have their own real costs and need real returns for themselves, often to justify participation to a larger constituency that they represent such as fishers, divers or water taxi operators. A good incentive operates at the individual level without
compromising the integrity of the group process.
Secondly, Just as not all resources are equally suitable for co-management, neither are all places. Some features, both physical and institutional, favour co- management more than others. Property rights were generally not burning issues for fisheries and coastal management authorities, or among the other stakeholders. A key to success is to reduce the openness of access to coastal and marine resources through the establishment of property rights. However, open access is likely to remain a feature of Caribbean coastal resource management for some time due to a deeply held belief that access to marine resources is a basic right rather than being only a privilege. The strength of this belief varies with location.
Lecture 3
Who do we co-manage with?
Co-management requires teamwork. Although stakeholders have common interests they also have differences. Working together towards common goals requires collective action. Trust and mutual respect are essential for this to happen without undue conflict.
Stakeholders and partners
In the Caribbean, where many co-management initiatives are led by State agencies, the inclusion of government is essential. If co-management initiatives are initiated by non-government organisations then these organisations should make all efforts to draw government in as a partner, even if in the context of conflict management. Where the government shows little interest in co- management, it will eventually need to become involved at some stage.
Trust and respect
If people perceive that there is insufficient trust or respect, then they will behave as if this is so and constrain the progress or promotion of co-management. This should be avoided.
It has been observed that in some places people expect government to take action on their behalf, and to treat them fairly, but at the same time they do not trust government to do these things. Where there is distrust of government, often no alternatives are sought, and this leads to strained relationships between citizens and the State.
Some dimensions of creating and maintaining trust in co-management : ♦ Looking after common interests ♦ Promoting the partnership ahead of oneself ♦ Expecting oneself and others to meet responsibilities ♦ Exchanging information and opinions freely ♦ Depending on the group to maintain the spirit of collective action ♦ Ensuring equitable distribution of rewards and benefits
ineffectiveness. Collective action requires constant attention to the means of mobilisation and keeping the group together.
Group process steps to solving free rider problems
♦ Discuss each person’s responsibilities ♦ Discuss clear goals with the group ♦ Arrange to monitor and evaluate progress ♦ Agree on schedules for achieving results ♦ Have a transparent feedback system ♦ Manage conflicts without confrontation
Authorities should be prepared to support and strengthen the organisation as a whole rather than just steer it towards management roles.
Decentralisation, delegation and devolution
Decentralisation, delegation and devolution are about the extent to which stakeholders, other than the government authority, have power to make decisions on their own (Figures 8,9).
Decentralisation : Central authority makes decisions, but has satellites in remote areas. Delegation : Central authority allows satellites to make at least some decisions Devolution : Central authority allows satellites independent decision-making
Power of the
satellite or
stakeholder
Power relinquished
by the central authority
decentralisation
delegation
devolution
Figure 8 : Changes in power distribution
Decentralisation: central authority makes decisions, but has satellites in remote areas
Delegation: central authority allows satellites to make at least some decisions
Devolution: central authority allows satellites independent decision-making
Figure 9 : Empowerment for decision-making
There may be limitations in stakeholder and state agency capacity, and legal framework that are barriers to decentralisation, delegation and devolution.
Although most stakeholders accept additional authority and responsibility, refusal may be warranted where it is clear that the government is only interested in passing on the costs and logistic difficulties of resource management without providing much or any support.
External agents and resources
External agents may be seen as either potential assets or liabilities
External agents as potential assets :
♦ Provide many operational resources ♦ Offer linkages to large global networks ♦ Attract attention from other agencies ♦ Stimulate new plans and perspectives ♦ Facilitate building capacity quickly
External agents as potential liabilities :
How do we co-manage?
The previous lectures provided the background or framework for appreciating what is involved in co-management. There are some ways or methods of doing co-management that favour success more than others.
Participatory and strategic planning
When planning is not participatory, or has been separated from management, strong partnerships among the co-management stakeholders are less likely. Co- management is more likely to be successful, and objectives-driven, when it incorporates a participatory planning process as shown in the flow chart below (Figure 10).
Formulation or Revision Fisheries Division and/or fishing industry groups formulate or revise a plan
Appraisal Fisheries Advisory Committee appraises the draft plan and advises on it
Public Review Fishing industry and other stakeholders review the draft and comment on it
Approval Minister approves the final FMP as required under the Fisheries Act
Implementation and Monitoring FMP is implemented through administrative and regulatory means, with informal and formal monitoring by authority and stakeholders
Evaluation Periodic formal evaluation is undertaken to inform revision or renewal (feedback)
Figure 10 : A fisheries planning process (These are stages of the process agreed to by the Fisheries Advisory Committee of Barbados and used for fisheries management plans. Each stage may be participatory or not, depending on the circumstances).
Lecture 4
Even though stakeholders should have bought into the plan, it may be ignored unless it is well known and becomes standard operating procedure. This helps to institutionalise the plan.
NGOs and other stakeholders can take the initiative to invite government to plan with them for a particular area or resource.
A methodology that has been used in several Caribbean marine and coastal management situations is shown in Figure 11. A specific sequence of stages is followed in order to progress logically, but within the overall sequence there may be feedback loops that allow plans to be evaluated and revised.
Participatory S trategic Plan ning Ba sed on: The Tech n ology of P articipation
S hared V ision
B arriers/ B locks
S trategic D irections
A ction Plans
Focus Q uestion
Focus Q uestion: The basis for planning - the major topic to be worked on. Shared Practica l Vision: The practical picture of the desired fu ture. Barriers/Blocks : The underlying obstacles or issues preventing us from realising the vision. Strategic D irections: The proposed a ctions to deal w ith the obs tacles and m ove tow ard the vision. Action Plans: The substantial actions required to carry out the new directions.
Figure 11 : Strategic planning from vision through to action
(Adapted from Spencer 1989)
Management objectives
The importance of having good objectives has recently been emphasised in both fisheries and marine protected area management particularly in the context of evaluating the effectiveness of management. This is to make sure that efforts at management are actually achieving the intended results, preferably in a manner that is efficient. Stakeholders, ranging from civil society to policy-makers, want to ensure that they are getting value for money.
Good management objectives state very clearly and concisely what is intended to be achieved by when. We can say that they are SMARTER , using the first letter of key features as an aid to memorise what we want the objectives to be.
Data collection
Data analysis
Data interpretation
Information generation
Information communication
Information use (decisions)
routine data processing
information impasse
information use system
Figure 12 : Processing data for decisions
While informed stakeholders can provide valuable information, it is necessary to have an adequate amount of information on both the resource and human systems at hand, especially when addressing the technical details of action plans.
Good co-management arrangements ensure that data generate information that is exchanged and used in decisions.
Local and scientific knowledge
Local knowledge : Knowledge based on local observations by resource users themselves; differs from traditional knowledge in not being multigenerational or culturally transmitted
Traditional knowledge : A cumulative body of knowledge, practice and belief, evolving by adaptive processes and handed down through generations by cultural transmission
Traditional ecological knowledge : A cumulative body of knowledge, practice and belief, evolving by adaptive processes and handed down through generations by cultural transmission, about the relationship of living beings (including humans) with one another and with their environment
In a co-management arrangement the local and traditional ecological knowledge of fishers and other sea users is more likely to become incorporated into the planning and management due to the close and ongoing relationships that are established.
Local and scientific knowledge can complement each other (Figure 13).
