STRUCTURE 3, Slides of English Literature

Download STRUCTURE 3 and more Slides English Literature in PDF only on Docsity!

module

SUKARNO

[email protected]

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

FACULTY OF LANGUAGES AND ARTS

YOGYAKARTA STATE UNIVERSITY

STRUCTURE 3

i

Praise be to God –Allah SWT to the “Almighty”, the “Merciful”, and the “Beneficent”, for His Blessings, without which the writer would have never completed this book.

This book provides the students with basic understanding of English grammar. It consists of 11 chapters. Each chapter presents theories, examples, and exercises. The theories are systematically presented and supported by a lot of examples in order that the students are able to comprehend the materials, -basic understanding of English grammar, easily. This book also gives the students chances to demonstrate their ability of English in relation to structure by doing the exercises following the theories.

Many thanks are due to 1) Sugi Iswalono, M.A., the head of the English Language Education Department, who has given a chance to the writer to deepen structure materials by writing this book; 2) Nury Supriyanti, M.A., the head of the English Language Study Program, who reminds and supports the writer in writing the book; 3) Drs. Bambang Priyanto for his careful and meticulous reading of the draft of this book, for his valuable suggestions for making this book become better and better, and for his kind encouragement.

Finally, the writer realizes that this book is far from being perfect; however, he hopes that it would give some contributions to the students’ comprehension of understanding English grammar.

Sukarno

PREFACE

• CHAPTER 1: SENTENCES …………………………………………………
  • A. The Subject ………………………………………………...
  • B. The Predicate ……………………………………………….
  • C. The Simple Sentence ……………………………………….
  • D. The Compound Sentence …………………………………..
  • E. The Complex Sentence …………………………………….
    • Exercises …………………………………………………..
• CHAPTER 2: ARTICLES …………………………………………………
  • A. No article: No a/an or the …………………………………..
  • B. The Use of Articles the A/an and The ……………………...
    • Exercises …………………………………………………..
• CHAPTER 3: NOUNS AND PRONOUNS …………………………………
  • A. Nouns ………………………………………………………
  • B. Pronouns ……………………………………………………
    • Exercises …………………………………………………..
• CHAPTER 4: NOUN PHRASES ……………………………………………
  • Exercises ………………………………………………………
• CHAPTER 5: VERBS: FORMS …………………………………………….
  • A. Finite and Non-finite Verbs ………………………………..
  • B. Verb Forms ………………………………………………...
    • Exercises …………………………………………………..
• CHAPTER 6: VERB GROUPS ……………………………………………. iii
  • A. Verb Groups ………………………………………………..
  • B. Questions …………………………………………………...
  • C. Negative Statements ………………………………………..
    • Exercises …………………………………………………..
• CHAPTER 7: VERBS: TENSES ……………………………………………
  • A. Present ……………………………………………………..
  • B. Past …………………………………………………………
  • C. Future ………………………………………………………
    • Exercises …………………………………………………..
• CHAPTER 8: CONJUNCTIONS …………………………………………...
  • A. Coordinate Conjunctions …………………………………..
    • Exercises ..…………………………………………………
  • B. Sub-ordinate Conjunctions …………………………………
  • C. Split Conjunctions ………………………………………….
    • Exercises ………………………………………………….
• CHAPTER 9: CLAUSES …………………………………………………….
  • A. The Adjective Clause ………………………………………
    • Exercises …………………………………………………..
  • B. The Restrictive and Non-restrictive Clause ………………..
    • Exercises …………………………………………………..
  • C. The Adverbial Clause ………………………………………
    • Exercises …………………………………………………..
  • D. The Noun Clause …………………………………………..
    • Exercises …………………………………………………..
• CHAPTER 10: INDIRECT CONSTRUCTIONS ………………………….. iv
  • A. Statements …………………………………………………
  • B. Questions …………………………………………………...
  • C. Imperatives …………………………………………………
  • D. The Changes of Adverbs …………………………………...
    • Exercises …………………………………………………..
• CHAPTER 11: THE TREE DIAGRAM ……………………………………
  • A. The Tree Diagram of the Simple Sentence ………………...
  • B. The Tree Diagram of the Compound Sentence …………….
  • C. The Tree Diagram of the Complex Sentence ………………
  • D. The Tree Diagram of the Compound Complex Sentence ….
  • E. The Tree Diagram of the Complex Compound Sentence ….
    • Exercises …………………………………………………..
• REFERENCES ……………………………………………………………...

B. The Predicate

The predicate is that which is discussed, said, asserted, or predicated of the subject. The predicate of a sentence must start with a finite verb or a finite verb group (a finite verb is the one which changes its form, depending on the number of the subject and the time reference). The following are examples of sentences and the brackets contain the types of predicate used in the sentences. Examples are as follows.

1. Lucy gets up early every morning. (Verb: V+ (^) s  singular subject; present)
2. Nadia went to Sydney last month. (Verb: V+ (^) ed  past)
3. Bob is doing the laundry. (Verb Group  singular subject; present continuous)
4. I will go to America next year. (Verb Group  future)
5. She has been studying English for four years. (Verb Group  singular subject; present perfect)

C. The Simple Sentence

The simple sentence is a sentence which has only one subject and one finite verb. Examples are as follows. 1. I have a brother. I have got a brother.

2. The clerk works every day.
3. She studies hard.
4. Mother cooks rice every day.
5. Mary always gets up early.

D. The Compound Sentence

The compound sentence is a sentence having two independent clauses and joined by a coordinate conjunction ( and, or, but ). Examples are as follows.

1. I bought a watch and she bought a ring.
2. She loves me but I love the other girl.
3. Either do the test seriously or you will fail.
4. She asked me to make a phone call but I did not have my mobile phone with me.
5. My parents came and I felt happy.

E. The Complex Sentence

A complex sentence is a sentence that has an independent clause and a dependent clause. An independent clause is a clause which can stand by itself as complete sentence. Meanwhile a dependent clause is a clause that cannot stand by itself as complete sentence because it is introduced by a sub-ordinate conjunction. It should be attached to an independent clause. Therefore, the independent clause and the dependent clause that are joined by a sub- ordinate conjunction form a complex sentence. Examples are as follows.

1. She was still sleeping when I came.
2. The students always study hard because they want to get good marks.
3. If you complete your assignment, I will give a mark.
4. Although it is raining hard, I will visit you.
5. I go early so that I can prepare materials for the presentation.

EXERCISES

Exercise 1 Underline and identify the subject of each following sentence.

1. My father cut the tree in front of my house.
2. My mother is sleeping.
3. The boy is playing outside.
4. That beautiful woman is my lecturer.
5. Swimming makes us healthy.
6. They met me yesterday.
7. To swim in the deep sea needs complete equipment.
8. To work requires carefulness.
9. What she does makes me happy.
10. Writing a good play needs much imagination.
11. The book written by a popular author is very interesting.
12. Javanese is the most complicated language in the world.
13. Indonesia is a developing country.

Exercise 3 Write out all the subjects and verbs in the following passages, and then identify the forms of the subjects.

Passage A

Hydrogen, the lightest and simplest of the elements, has several properties that make it valuable for many industries. It releases more heat per unit of weight than any other fuel. In rocket engines, tons of hydrogen and oxygen are burned, and hydrogen is used with oxygen for welding torches that produce temperatures as high as 4,000 degrees F and can be used in cutting steel. Fuel cells to generate electricity operate on hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen also serves to prevent metals from tarnishing during heat treatments by removing the oxygen from them. Although it would be difficult to remove the oxygen by itself, hydrogen readily combines with oxygen to form water, which can be heated to steam and easily removed. Hydrogen is also useful in the food industry for a process known as hydrogenation. Products such as margarine and cooking oils are changed from liquids to semisolids by adding hydrogen to their molecules. Soap manufacturers also use hydrogen for this purpose. Hydrogen is also one of the coolest refrigerants. It does not become a liquid until it reaches temperatures of – 425 degrees F. Pure hydrogen gas is used in large electric generators to cool the coils. In addition, in the chemical industry, hydrogen is used to produce ammonia, gasoline, methyl alcohol, and many other important products.

Passage B

There are four basic types of competition in business that form a continuum from pure competition through monopolistic competition and oligopoly to monopoly. At one end of the continuum, pure competition results when every company has a similar product. Companies that deal in commodities such as wheat or corn are often involved in pure competition. In pure competition, it is often the ease and efficiency of distribution that influences purchase. In contrast, in monopolistic competition, several companies may compete for the sale of items that may be substituted. The classic example of monopolistic competition is coffee and tea. If the price of one is perceived as too high, consumers may begin to purchase the other. Coupons and other discounts are often used as part of a marketing strategy to influence sales.

Oligopoly occurs when a few companies control the majority of sales for a product or service. For example, only five airline carriers control more than 70 percent of all ticket sales in the United States. In oligopoly, serious competition is not considered desirable because it would result in reduced profit for every company in the group. Although price wars do occur, in which all companies offer substantial savings to customers, a somewhat similar tendency to raise prices simultaneously is also usual. Finally, monopoly occurs when only one firm sells the product. Traditionally, monopolies have been tolerated for producers of goods and service that have been considered basic or essential, including electricity and water. In these cases, it is government control, rather than competition, that protects and influences sales.

Exercise 4 Punctuate the following passages correctly.

Passage A

a book of maps of the world is very interesting to look at some maps show all the countries of the world you can see that these countries lie in different places some countries like canada and russia lie far to the north of the map some others like argentina and new zealand lie far to the south of the map some places in these countries have low temperatures and the weather is sometimes very cold on the mountains and sometimes even on the flat land you can find snow and ice the countries in the middle of the map often have high temperatures and the weather is much warmer in the west of the map you can find hot countries like cuba and panama and in the east of the map you can see countries like indonesia and thailand most of the people in one country belong to one nation and usually they are governed by one government they do not always speak the same language (35)

Passage B

john quincy adams who served as the sixth president of the united states from 1825 to 1829 is today recognized for his masterful statesmanship and diplomacy he dedicated his life to public service both in the presidency and in the various other political offices that he held hroughout his political career he demostrated his unswerving belief in freedom of speech the antislavery cause and the right of americans to be free from european and asian domination

• My books are on the table. (Right)
• A shops open at 9 o’clock. (Wrong)
• The shops open at 9 o’clock. (Right)

4. When nouns are in a list.

• Every test taker should bring a ruler, eraser, pencil, and ballpoint.
• This morning, I bought a shirt, T-shirt, hat , and belt at Global Mall.

Exceptions :

1. Some uncountable nouns can be treated as countable nouns to express the meaning “a type of” or “a portion of”.
   • When I say “I drink a milk every morning”, it means that I drink a glass of milk every morning.
   • When someone says “Three coffees” please, it means that the speaker orders three cups of coffee.
2. Some uncountable nouns can be “partly countable”. They do not have plural form.
   • I need a good sleep.
   • Everyone needs a knowledge of English. The article the is omitted especially in general statements. However, the is often used in statements about known objects in actual situation with such uncountable nouns.

• Babies need to drink milk.
• Put the milk in the refrigerator. The is also omitted when the uncountable nouns are preceded by descriptive adjectives.
• I like to drink fresh milk.
• She’s studying American history this year.

B. The Use of Articles the A/an and The

1. A/an A is generally used with a singular noun. A changes its form into an when it is followed by a noun with initial vowel letters. A/an is called “the indefinite article”. The following shows the use of article a/an. a. A/an is used to talk about one particular person or thing, when the listener/reader does not know which one is meant, or when it does not matter which one.

• Can you lend me a pen?
• I was staying in a nice room in that hotel when I was in Jakarta.

b. A/an is used to talk about one member of a class (job).

• A teacher is a person who teaches students.
• A teacher should be patient.

c. A/an is used to classify people and things to say what class, group, or type they belong to.

• My father is a minister.
• My brother is a teacher.

d. A/an is used when the speaker says what something/someone is, or what something/someone is like.

• This is a nice shirt.
• Ann is a beautiful girl.

e. A/an is used after certain adverbs or adjectives – not a, many a, quite a, rather a.

• There was a large crowd in the street.
• She is quite a patient mother.

f. A/an is used before noun qualifiers.

• I need a little oil to fry an egg.
• There are a few students outside.

g. A/an is used with proper names.

• A Mr. Arnold called you last week.
• A Mr. John will visit us next Saturday night.

h. A/an is used after so or too + an adjective + a singular noun.

• She is so beautiful a girl in my class.
• He is too handsome a boy to marry her.

i. A/an is used after such and what.

• She is such a pretty girl that every boy falls in love with her.
• What a beautiful girl she is. (What a beautiful girl she is!)

• This house is the most precious thing I have.
• This is the most expensive car that I buy.

h. The is used before ordinal numbers.

• Please come through the first gate.
• My office is on the second floor.
• The bus is being parked in the third lane.

i. The is used before adjectives in a time or space sequence.

• I’ll come to the next meeting.
• All participants must be ready for the next discussion.
• A student in the last row was asleep.

j. The is used in older aphoristic constructions.

• The sooner, the better.
• The better, the more precious.
• The cleaner, the healthier.

k. The is used before names composed entirely or partially of common nouns referring to a political union or association: the United Kingdom, the United States, the United Arab Republic, the British Commonwealth.

l. The is used before plural names: continents (e.g. The Americas, the Balkans), countries (e.g. the Netherlands, the United States), mountain ranges (e.g. the Rocky Mountains, the Himalaya), groups of islands (e.g. the Philippine Islands, the Hawaiian Islands), group of lake (the Great Lakes, the Finger Lakes), all bodies of water execpt lakes and bays (the Missisippi River, the Pacific Ocean), deserts, forests, peninsulas, and archipelagos (the Sahara Desert, the Black Forest, the Mala Archipelago), and points of the globe (the North Pole, the South Pole).

EXERCISES

Exercise 1 Put articles in the following passage when needed.

popular theory explaining evolution of universe is known as Big Bang Model. According to model, at time between ten and twenty billion years ago, all present matter and energy were compressed into small ball only few kilometers in diameter. It was, in effect, atom that contained in form of pure energy all of components of entire universe. Then, at moment in time that astronomers refer to as T = 0, ball exploded, hustling energy into space. Expansion occurred. As energy cooled, most of it became matter in form of protons, neutrons, and electrons. These original particles combined to form hydrogen and helium, and continued to expand. Matter formed into galaxies with stars and planets.

Exercise 2 Do the following exercise as you do on the first exercise.

It has long been known that when exposed to light under suitable conditions of temperature and moisture, green parts of plants use carbon dioxide from atmosphere and release oxygen to it. These exchanges are opposite of those that occur in respiration. The process is called photosynthesis. In photosynthesis, carbohydrates are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water by chloroplasts of plant cells in presence of light. In most plasts, water used in photosynthesis is absorbed from soil by roots and translocated through xylem of root and stem of leaves. Except for usually small percentage used in respiration, oxygen released in process diffuses out of leaf into atmosphere through stomates. Oxygen is product of reaction. For each molecule of carbon dioxide used, one molecule of oxygen is released. A summary chemical equation for photosynthesis is: 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O (^2) As result of this process, radiant energy from sun is stored as chemical energy. In turn, chemical energy is used to decompose carbon dioxide and water. products of their decomposition are recombined into new compound, which is successively built up into more and more complex substances. After many intermediate steps, sugar is produced. At same time, a balance of gases is preserved in atmosphere.

d. As a subject in sentences, a noun has concord with a verb: John has two wives. e. A noun has suffixes: - ment, - ion, - tion, - ation, - ition, - cation, - ance, - ence, - t,

- er, - or, - ar, - ist, - ant, - ent, - al, - ure, - ture, - ature, - y, - ery, - ary, - age, - thing, - body, - one, - ness, - ity, - th, - self/selves, and - ism. f. A noun comes after a preposition: Because of her beauty , everyone loves her.

2. Forms of Nouns a. Single nouns: those which have not been formed by combining two separate words (e.g., boy, boat, man, life, brother, ship ). b. Compound nouns: those which have been formed by combining two or more words having individual meaning of their own when standing alone (e.g., bookcase, bathroom, moonligh t). c. Noun phrases: groups of related words, written separately or with hyphens, serving for the names of persons, places, things, or ideas (White House, Commander in Chief, fountain pen, attorney-general). d. Noun clauses: nouns in the form of clauses.  Who I am is not who I was.  I have known who you are.  What she does makes me happy.
3. Nouns Classified as to Meaning a. A common noun: the name of a class of objects (e.g., city, teacher, ship, table, insect, tree ). b. A proper noun: an individual name (e.g., Birmingham, Woodrow Wilson, John the Baptist, Edgar Allan Poe, Arnold, Joe ). c. A concrete noun: the name of a person, place, or thing (e.g., boy, house, car, tree ). d. An abstract noun: the name of a quality, a condition, or an activity (e.g., blueness, sweetness, conversation, loyalty, faith, disease, beauty, energy, joy, love, speech ). e. A collective noun/a noun of multitude: the name of a group of persons, places, or things (e.g., audience, number, crawl, committee, congress, nation, United States ). f. The individual noun: the name of a unit which represents or belongs to a class of objects (e.g., tree, man, dog, bear ). g. The mass noun/a material noun: the name of a bulk or mass (e.g., iron, flour, water, bread ).

4. Nouns Based on Gender a. Masculine gender: male sex (e.g., man, hero, bridegroom, rooster, uncle, duke, actor ). b. Feminine gender: female sex (e.g., woman, heroine, hen bride, aunt, duchess, actress ). c. Neuter gender: lack of sex (e.g., book, language, mind, water ).
5. Ways of Showing Gender a. By different words: bachelor, maid; brother, sister; father, mother; husband, wife. b. By different endings: suffix – ess shows feminine (e.g., author, authoress; actor, actress ; and host, hostess ). c. Certain nouns from Greek, Latin, French, Spanish (e.g., Augustus, Augustine; Carl, Caroline; Joseph, Josephine ).
6. Rules for Pluralizing Nouns a. Adding -s to the singular: boy, boys; flower, flowers; girl, girls ; and tree, trees. b. Adding an extra syllable in taking on the –s to nouns ending in silent -e preceded by a fricative (e.g., bridge, bridges; cage, cages; prize, prizes ). c. Adding –es to nouns ending in a fricative -s, -z, -x, -ch, and -sh (e.g., church, churches; lens, lenses; tax, taxes ). d. Adding –s to nouns ending in -th (e.g., mouth, mouths; path, paths; youth, youths ). e. Changing f to v and adding -s or –es to nouns ending in -f or –fe (e.g., beef, beeves; calf, calves; knife, knives ; life, lives; wolf, wolves; wife, wives ). f. Merely adding –s for their plurals to some nouns ending in -f or - ef (e.g., belief, beliefs; gulf, gulfs; roof, roofs; waif, waifs ). g. Changing y to i and adding –es to form their plurals for nouns ending in -y preceded by a consonant, (e.g., army, armies; body, bodies; country, countries; lady, ladies ). h. Adding –s to nouns ending in -y preceded by a vowel to form their plurals (e.g., alley, alleys; key, keys; journey, journeys, boy, boys ). i. Adding -s or –es to nouns ending in –o , to form their plural (e.g., cameo, cameos; folio, folios; radio, radios; studio, studios; potato, potatoes; echo, echoes; tomato,