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The concept of representation has come to occupv a new and important place in the study of culture. Representation connects meaning and language to culture.
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C I A P T E R T H E W O R ( O I _R E P R E S E N T A IO N I 5
I n th is c h a p te rw e w ill b e c o n c e n tra tin go n o n e o f th e k e y p ro c e s s e sin th e 'c u ltu ra l (^) c irc u it' ( s e ed u G a y ,H a ll e t a l. , 1 9 9 7 ,a n d th e I n tro d u c tio nto th is vo lu m e ) - th e p ra ctice so f re p re sen ta tio n. T h e a im o f th is ch a p te ris to in tro d u c ey o u to th is to p ic , a n d to e x p ia in w h a t it is a b o u ta n d w h y w e g iv e it su ch im p o rta n ce in cu ltu ra l stu d ie s.
T h e c o n c e p to f re p re s e n ta tio nh a s c o m e to o c c u p va n e w a n d im p o rta n tp la c e in th e s tu d y o f c u ltu re. R e p re s e n ta tio nc o n n e c tsm e a n in ga n d la n g u a g eto c u ltu re. B u t w h a t e x a c tlyd o p e o p le m e a nb y it? W h a t d o e sre p re s e n ta tio n h a ve to d o r,r'ithcu ltu re a n d m e a n in g? O n e co m m o n - se n seu sa g eo f th e te rm is a s fo llo w s : 'R e p re s e n ta tio nm e a n su s in g la n g u a g eto s a y s o m e th in g m e a n in g fu la b o u t,o r to re p re s e n t,th e w o rld m e a n in g fu lly ,to o th e r p e o p le. ' Y o u m a y w e ll a s k , 'I s th a t a ll? ' W e ll, y e s a n d n o. R e p re s e n ta tio nis a n e s s e n tia lp a rt o f th e p ro c e s sb y w h ic h m e a n in gis p ro d u c e da n d e x c h a n g e d b e tw e e nm e m b e rso f a c u ltu re. I I d o e sin v o lv e th e u s e o f la n g u a g e ,o f s ig n s a n d im a g e sw h ich sta n d fo r o r re p re se n tth in g s. B u t th is is a fa r fro m sim p le o r s tra ig h tfo rw a rdp ro c e s s ,a s y o u w ill s o o n d is c o v e r.
H o w d o e sth e c o n c e p to f re p re s e n ta tio nc o n n e c tm e a n in ga n d la n g u a g eto c u ltu re? I n o rd e rto e x p lo reth is c o n n e c tio nfu rth e r,w e w ill lo o k a t a n u m b e r o f d iffe re n tth e o rie sa b o u th o w ia n g u a g eis u s e d to re p re s e n tth e w o rld. H e re w e w ill b e d ra w in g a d is tin c tio nb e tw e e nth re e d iffe re n ta c c o u n tso r th e o rie s : Ih e re fle ctive ,th e in te n tio n a l a n d Ih e co n stru ctio n ista p p ro a ch e sto re p re s e n ta tio n .D o e sla n g u a g es im p ly re fle c ta m e a n in gw h ic h a lre a d ye x is ts o u t th e re in th e w o rld o f o b je cts,p e o p le a n d e ve n ts ( re fle ctive ) ?D o e s la n g u a g ee xp re sso n ly w h a t th e sp e a ke ro r w rite r o r p a in te r w a n ts to sa y.h is o r h e r p e rso n a lly^ in te n d e d m e a n in g ( in te n tio n a l)? O r is m e a n in g co n stru cte d in a n d th ro u g h la n g u a g e( co n stru ctio n isf) ?Y o u w ill le a rn m o re in a m o m e n t a b o u tth e s eth re e a p p ro a c h e s.
M o s t o f th e c h a p te rw ill b e s p e n te x p lo rin gth e c o n s tru c tio n is fa p p ro a c h. b e c a u s eit is th is p e rs p e c tiv ew h ic h h a s h a d th e m o s t s ig n ific a n tim p a c t o n c u ltu ra l s tu d ie sin re c e n ty e a rs. T h is c h a p te rc h o o s e sto e x a m in etw o m a jo r v a ria n tso r m o d e lso f th e c o n s tru c tio n is ta p p ro a c h- th e s e m io lica p p ro a c h , g re a tlyin flu e n c e db y th e g re a tS w is slin g u is t, F e rd in a n dd e S a u s s u re ,a n d th e d iscu rsivea p p ro a ch ,a sso cia te dr,riithth e F re n ch p h ilo so p h e r a n d h is to ria n ,M ic h e l F o u c a u it. L a te rc h a p te rsin th is b o o k w ill ta k e u p th e s etw o th e o rie sa g a in ,a m o n go th e rs ,s o V o u w iil h a v e a n o p p o rtu n ityto c o n s o lid a te yo u r u n d e rsta n d in go f th e m , a n d to a p p ly th e m to d iffe re n t a re a so f a n a lysis. O th e r ch a p te rsw ill in tro d u ce th e o re tica lp a ra d ig m sw h ich a p p ly c o n s tru c tio n is ta p p ro a c h e sin d iffe re n tw a y s to th a t o f s e m io tic sa n d F o u c a u lt. A ll, h o w e v e r,p u t in q u e s tio nth e v e ry n a tu re (^) o f re p re s e n ta tio n. W e tu rn to th is o u e stio n first.
C I A P I T _ R T I ]E W O R < O F R E P I T. E S E N T A IO N 1 7
co m m u n ica tea b o u t th e m th ro u g h la n g u a g ein w a ys w h ich o th e r p e o p ie a re a b le to u n d e rs ta n d.
W h y d o w e h a v e to g o th ro u g hth is c o m p le r p ro c e s sto re p re s e n to u r th o u g h ts ?I f y o u p u t d o w n a g la s sy o u a re h o ld in g a n d rna lk o u t o f th e ro o m ,
v o u c a n s till / h in k a b o u tth e g la s s ,e v e nth o u g h^ it is n o lo n g e rp h y s ic a llv th e re .A c tu a lly ,y o u c a n 't th in k w ith a g la s s .Y o u c a n o n lv th in k w ith tfte c o n c e p to / th e g la s s .A s th e lin g u is tsa re fo n d o f s a y in g ,'D o g sb a rk. B u t th e c o n c e p to f "d o g " c a n n o tb a rk o r b ite. ' Y o u c a n 't s p e a kr, r- ithth e a c tu a lg la s s , e ith e r. Y o u ca n o n ly sp e a kw ith th e w o rd fo r g la ss- G L A S S - rnh ich is th e lin g u is tic s ig n w h ic h w e u s e in E n g lis hto re fe rto o b je c tsrnh ic h y o u d rin k w a te r o u t o f. T h is is w h e re re p re se n ta tio nco m e sin. R e p re se n ta tio nis th e p ro d u c tio no f th e m e a n in go f th e c o n c e p tsin o u r m in d s th ro u g hla n g u a g e .I t is th e lin k b e tw e e n co n ce p tsa n d la n g u a g ew h ich e n a b le su s to re le r fo e ith e r th e 're a i'^ w o rld o f o b je c ts ,p e o p ie o r e v e n ts ,o r in d e e d to im a g in a ryr, r. o rld so f fic tio n a l o b je c ts ,p e o p le a n d e v e n ts.
S o th e re a re tw o p ro c e s s e s ,t. , t'os y s te m so f re p re s e n ta tio n ,in v o lv e d .F irs t, th e re (^) is th e 's y s te m ' (^) b y - , t'h ic ha ll s o rtso f o b je c ts ,p e o p le (^) a n d e v e n tsa re co rre la te dw ith a se t o f co n ce p tso r m e n fa l re p re se n ta tio n sr,t'h ichw e ca rry a ro u n d in o u r h e a d s .W ith o u t th e m , w e c o u ld n o t in te rp re tth e w o rld m e a n in g fu llya t a ll. in th e firs t p la c e ,th e n , m e a n in gd e p e n d so n th e s y s te mo f c o n c e p tsa n d im a g e sfo rm e d in o u r th o u g h tsw h ic h c a n s ta n d fo r o r 're p re s e n t'th e w o rld , e n a b lin gu s to re fe rto th in g sb o th in s id e a n d o u ts id e o u r h e a d s.
B e fo rew e m o v e o n to lo o k a t th e s e c o n d's y s te mo f re p re s e n ta tio n ',w e s h o u ld o b s e rv eth a t w h a t r. r'eh a v e ju s t s a id is a v e ry s im p le v e rs io no f a ra th e r c o m p le xp ro c e s s .I t is s im p le e n o u g hto s e eh o - a ,u , e m ig h t fo rm c o n c e p tsfo r th in g s w e c a n p e rc e iv e- p e o p le o r m a te ria lo b je c ts ,lik e c h a irs ,ta b le sa n d d e s k s. B u t'"r'ea ls o fo rm c o n c e p tso f ra th e ro b s c u rea n d a b s tra c tth in g s. w h ic h w e c a n 't in a n y s im p le \ ra y^ s e e ,fe e l o r to u c h. T h in k , fo r e x a m p le ,o f o u r c o n c e p tso f w a r, o r d e a th ,o r frie n d s h ipo r lo v e. A n d , a s u , 'eh a v e re m a rk e d ,w e a ls o fo rm c o n c e p tsa b o u tth in g s \ v e n e v e rh a v e s e e n ,a n d p o s s ib lyc a n 't o r w o n 't e v e r s e e ,a n d a b o u tp e o p le a n d p la c e sw e h a v e p la in ly m a d e u p. W e m a y h a v e a c le a rc o n c e p to f, s a v ,a n g e ls ,m e rm a id s ,G o d , th e D e v il, o r o f H e a v e na n d H e il, o r o f M id d le m a rc h( th e fic tio n a l p ro v in c ia l to w n in G e o rg eE lio t'sn o v e l) ,o r E liz a b e thfth e h e ro in e o f fa n e A u s te n 'sP rid e a n d P re ju d ice ).
W e h a v e c a lle d th is a 's y s / e m o f re p re s e n ta tio n '.T h a t is b e c a u s eit c o n s is ts , n o t o f in d iv id u a l c o n c e p ts ,b u t o f d iffe re n tw a y s o f o rg a n iz in g ,c lu s te rin g. a rra n g in ga n d c la s s ify in gc o n c e p ts ,a n d o f e s ta b lis h in gc o m p le xre la tio n s b e tw e e nth e m. F o r e x a m p le ,w e u s e th e p rin c ip le so f s im ila rity a n d d iffe re n c eto e s ta b lis hre la tio n s h ip sb e tw e e nc o n c e p tso r to d is tin g u is hth e m fio m o n e a n o th e r.T h u s I h a v e a n id e a th a t in s o m ere s p e c tsb ird s a re lik e p la n e sin th e s k y ,b a s e do n th e fa c t th a t th e y a re s im ila rb e c a u s eth e v b o th flv
I 8 (^) R E P R E S E N T A T I o NC U L T U R A L R E P R E S E N T A T I o N S A N D S I G N I F Y I N G P R A C T I C E S
re la tio n s b e tw e e n co n ce p tsto fo rm co m p le x id e a s a n d th o u g h ts is p o ssib le b e ca u seo u r co n ce p tsa re a rra n g e din to d iffe re n t cla ssifyin gsyste m s.In th is e xa m p le ,th e first is b a se do n a d istin ctio n b e tw e e n flyin g /n o t flyin g a n d th e se co n dis b a se do n th e d istin ctio n b e tw e e nn a tu ra l/m a n - m a d e .T h e re a re o th e r p rin c ip le so f o rg a n iz a tio nlik e th is a t w o rk in a ll c o n c e p tu a ls y s te m s : fo r e xa m p le ,cla ssifyin ga cco rd in gto se q u e n ce- w h ich co n ce p tfo llo w s w h ich - o r ca u sa lity- w h a t ca u se sw h a t - a n d so o n. T h e p o in t h e re is th a t w e a re ta lk in g a b o u t,n o t ju s t a ra n d o m c o lle c tio no f c o n c e p ts ,b u t c o n c e p ts o rg a n iz e d ,a rra n g e da n d cla ssifie d in to co m p le x re la tio n s^ w ith o n e a n o th e r. T h a t is w h a t o u r co n ce p tu a lsyste m a ctu a lly is like. H o w e ve r,th is d o e s n o t u n d e rm in e th e b a sic p o in t. M e a n in g d e p e n d so n th e re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n th in g s in th e w o rid - p e o p le ,o b je c tsa n d e v e n ts ,re a l o r fic tio n a l- a n d th e co n ce p tu a lsyste m ,w h ich ca n o p e ra tea s m e n ta l re p re se n ta tio n so f th e m.
N o w it co u ld b e th e ca seth a t th e co n ce p tu a lm a p w h ich I ca rry a ro u n d in m y h e a d is to ta lly d iffe re n t fro m yo u rs, in w h ich ca seyo u a n d I w o u ld in te rp re t o r m a ke se n seo f th e w o rld in to ta lly d iffe re n t^ w a ys. W e w o u ld b e in ca p a b le o f sh a rin g o u r th o u g h ts o r e xp re ssin gid e a s a b o u t th e w o rld to e a ch^ o th e r.^ In fa ct, e a ch o f u s p ro b a b ly d o e su n d e rsta n da n d in te rp re t th e w o rld in a u n iq u e a n d in d ivid u a l w a y, H o w e ve r,w e a re a b le to co m m u n ica teb e ca u sew e sh a re b ro a d ly th e sa m e co n ce p tu a lm a p s a n d th u s m a ke se n seo f o r in te rp re t th e w o rld in ro u g h ly sim ila r w a ys. T h a t is in d e e d w h a t it m e a n sw h e n w e sa y w e 'b e lo n g (^) to th e sa m e cu ltu re '. B e ca u sew e in te rp re t th e w o rld in ro u g h ly sim ila r w a ys, w e a re a b le to b u ild u p a sh a re dcu ltu re o f m e a n in g sa n d th u s co n stru cta so cia l w o rld w h ich w e in h a b it to g e th e r.T h a t is w h y 'cu ltu re ' is so m e tim e sd e fin e d in te rm s o f 'sh a re dm e a n in g so r sh a re dco n ce p tu a lm a p s' ( s e ed u G a y ,H a ll e t a l. , 1 9 9 7 ).
H o w e ve r,a sh a re dco n ce p tu a lm a p is n o t e n o u g h. W e m u st a lso^ b e a b le to re p re se n to r e xch a n g em e a n in g sa n d co n ce p ts,a n d w e ca n o n ly d o th a t w h e n w e a lso h a ve a cce ssto a sh a re dla n g u a g e .L a n g u a g eis th e re fo reth e se co n d syste m o f re p re se n ta tio nin vo lve d in th e o ve ra ll^ p ro ce sso f co n stru ctin g m e a n in g .O u r sh a re dco n ce p tu a lm a p m u st b e tra n sla te din to a co m m o n Ia n g u a g e ,so th a t w e ca n co rre la teo u r co n ce p tsa n d id e a s^ w ith ce rta in^ w ritte n w o rd s , s p o k e ns o u n d so r v is u a l^ im a g e s .T h e g e n e ra lte rm w e u s e fo r w o rd s , so u n d s o r im a g e sw h ich ca rry m e a n in g^ is s1 g n s.T h e se^ sig n s^ sta n d fo r o r re p re se n tth e co n ce p tsa n d th e co n ce p tu a lre la tio n s^ b e tw e e n^ th e m w h ich w e ca rry a ro u n d in o u r h e a d s a n d to g e th e rth e y m a ke u p th e m e a n in g - syste m so f o u r cu ltu re.
S ig n s a re o rg a n iz e din to la n g u a g e sa n d it is th e e xiste n ceo f co m m o n la n g u a g e sr,r,h iche n a b le u s to tra n sla te o u r th o u g h ts ( co n ce p ts)in to r,to rd s, s o u n d so r im a g e s ,a n d th e n to u s e th e s e ,o p e ra tin ga s^ a la n g u a g e ,to e x p re s s m e a n in g sa n d co m m u n ica teth o u g h ts to o th e r p e o p le. R e m e m b e rth a t th e te rm 'la n g u a g e 'is b e in g u s e d h e re in a v e ry b ro a d a n d in c lu s iv e w a y. T h e w ritin g syste m o r th e sp o ke n syste m o f a p a rticu la r la n g u a g ea re b o th o b v io u s ly'la n g u a g e s '.B u t s o a re v is u a l^ im a g e s ,w h e th e rp ro d u c e db v h a n d. m e c h a n ic a l,e le c tro n ic ,d ig ita l o r s o m e o th e r m e a n s ,w h e n th e y a re u s e d to e x p re s sm e a n in g. A n d s o a re o th e rth in g s w h ic h a re n 't'lin g u is tic 'in a n v
R I P R E S I _ N T A TO N : C U L T U R A LR E P R E S E N T A T I O N SA N D S I G N I F YN G P R A C T I C E S
s o p h is tic a te dc o n c e p tu a la n d s h a re dlin g u is tic (^) s y s te mto b e c e rta inth a t w e a re a ll 're a d in g 'th es ig n in th e s a m ew a y. E v e n th e n w e m a y fin d o u rs e lv e s w o n d e rin gw h e th e rit re a lly is a p ic tu re o f a s h e e pa t a ll. A s th e re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e nth e sig n a n d its re fe re n tb e co m e sle ss cle a r- cu t,th e m e a n in gb e g in sto slip a n d slid e a w a y fro m u s in to u n ce rta in ty.M e a n in g (^) is n o lo n g e r tra n s p a re n tlyp a s s in gfro m o n e p e rs o nto a n o th e r...
S o , e v e n in th e c a s eo f v is u a l (^) la n g u a g e ,w h e re th e re la tio n s h ipb e tw e e n th e co n ce p ta n d th e sig n se e m sfa irly stra ig h tfo rw a rd ,th e m a tte r is fa r fro m sim p le. It is e ve n m o re d ifficu lt w ith w ritte n o r sp o ke n (^) la n g u a g e ,w h e re w o rd s d o n 't lo o k o r so u n d a n yth in g like th e th in g s to w h ich th e y re fe r. In p a rt, th is is b e c a u s e th e re a re d iffe re n t kin d s o f sig n s. V isu a l sig n s a re w h a t a re ca lle d ico n ic sig n s. T h a t is , th e y b e a r, in th e ir fo rm , a c e rta in re s e m b la n c e to th e o b je c t, p e rso n o r e ve n t to w h ich (^) th e y re fe r. A p h o to g ra p h o f a tre e re p ro d u c e s s o m e o f th e a c tu a l c o n d itio n s o f o u r v is u a l p e rc e p tio n in th e v is u a l s ig n. W ritte n o r sp o ke n sig n s, o n th e o th e r h a n d , a re w h a t is ca lle d in d e xica l,
F I G U R E I. 2
Q : W h e n is a s h e e pn o t a s h e e p? A : W h e n it's a w o rk o f a rt. ( D a m ie n H irst, A w o yfro m th e F lo ck,1 9 9 4 ).
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F I G U R E I. I W illia m H o lm a n H u n t, O u r E n g lish C oosts('S troye d S h e e p ) ,1 8 5 2.
E t. l H o lm a n 'r E n g lish S vo ye d C I I A P T E R T H E W O R. KO F R E P R E S E N T A T I O N 2 I T h e y b e a r n o o b vio u s re la tio n sh ip a t a ll to th e th in g s to w h ich th e y re fe r.T h e le tte rsT , R , E , E ,d o n o t lo o k a n y th in glik e tre e sin N a tu re ,n o r d o e sth e w o rd 'tre e 'in E n g lis hs o u n d lik e 're a l' (^) tre e s( if in d e e d th e y m a k e a n y s o u n d a t a ll!). T h e re la tio n s h ipin th e s es y s te m so f re p re s e n ta tio nb e tw e e nth e s ig n ,th e c o n c e p t a n d th e o b je c tto w h ic h th e y m ig h t b e u s e d to re fe ris e n tire ly a rb itra ry. B y 'a rb itra ry' w e m e a n th a t in p rin cip le a n v co lie ctio n o f le tte rs o r a n y so u n d in a n y o rd e r w o u ld d o th e trick e q u a lly w e ll. T re e sr,vo u ldn o t m in d if w e u s e d th e w o rd S E E R T- 'tre e s 'w ritte n b a c k w a rd s- to re p re s e n t th e co n ce p t o f th e m. T h is is cle a r fro m th e fa ct th a t, in F re n ch , (^) q u ite d iffe re n t le tte rs a n d a q u ite d iffe re n t so u n d is u se d to re fe r (^) to w h a t, to a ll a p p e a ra n ce s, is th e sa m eth in g - a 're a l' tre e - a n d , a s fa r a s w e ca n te ll, to th e sa m e co n ce p t
th e s a m ec o n c e p t.B u t th e c o n c e p tw h ic h in E n g lis his re p re s e n te db y th e w o rd , T R E E ,is re p re s e n te din F re n c hb y th e w o rd , A R B R E. T h e q u e s tio n ,th e n , is : h o w d o p e o p lew h o b e lo n gto th e s a m ec u ltu re ,w h o sh a reth e sa m e co n ce p tu a im a p a n d w h o sp e a ko r w rite th e sa m e la n g u a g e ( E n g lish )kn o w th a t th e a rb itra ry co m b in a tio n o f le tte rs a n d so u n d sth a t m a ke su p th e w o rd , T R E E , w ill sta n d fo r o r re p re se n tth e co n ce p t 'a la rg e p la n t th a t g ro w sin n a tu re '? O n e p o s s ib ilityw o u ld b e th a t th e o b je c tsin th e w o rld th e m s e lv e se m b o d ya n d fix in s o m ew a y th e ir'tru e 'm e a n in g .B u t it is n o t a t a ll cle a r th a t re a l tre e skn o w th a t th e y a re tre e s,a n d e ve n le ss cle a r th a t th e y kn o w th a t th e w o rd in E n g lish w h ich re p re se n tsth e co n ce p to f th e m se lve sis w ritte n T R E E w h e re a sin F re n ch it is w ritte n A R B R E I A s fa r a s th e y a re c o n c e rn e d ,it c o u ld ju s t a s w e ll b e w ritte n C O W o r V A C H E o r in d e e d X Y Z. T h e m e a n in gis n o f in th e o b je c to r p e rs o no r th in g , n o r is it in th e w o rd. It is w e w h o fix th e m e a n in g so firm ly th a t, a fte r a w h ile , it co m e sto se e m n a tu ra l a n d in e vita b le. T h e m e a n in g is co n stru cte db y th e syste m o f re p re se n ta tio n .It is co n stru cte da n d fixe d b y th e co d e ,w h ich se tsu p th e co rre la tio nb e tw e e n o u r co n ce p tu a lsyste m a n d o u r la n g u a g esyste m in su ch a w a y th a t, e v e rytim e w e th in k o f a tre e ,th e c o d e te lls u s to u s e th e E n g lis h w o rd T R E E ,o r th e F re n c hw o rd A R B R E .T h e c o d e te lls u s th a t, in o u r c u ltu re
re p re s e n te db y th e le tte rsT , R , E , E ,a rra n g e din a c e rta ins e q u e n c e ,ju s t a s in M o rse co d e , th e sig n fo r V ( w h ich in W o rld W a r II C h u rch ill m a d e 'sta n d fo r' o r re p re s e n t'V ic to ry ')is D o t, D o t, D o t, D a s h ,a n d in th e 'la n g u a g eo f tra ffic I ig h ts ',G re e n= G o! a n d R e d = S to p! O n e w a y o f th in k in g a b o u t'c u ltu re ',th e n , is in te rm s (^) o f th e s es h a re d co n ce p tu a lm a p s, (^) sh a re dla n g u a g esyste m sa n d th e co d e s w h ich g o ve rn th e re la tio n sh ip s (^) o f tra n sla tio n b e tw e e nf.h e m .C o d e sfix th e re la tio n sh ip s b e tw e e n (^) co n ce p tsa n d sig n s.T h e y sta b iliz e m e a n in g w ith in d iffe re n t la n g u a g e sa n d cu ltu re s. T h e y te ll u s w h ich la n g u a g eto u se to co n ve y w h ich id e a .T h e re v e rs eis a ls o tru e. C o d e ste ll u s w h ic h c o n c e p tsa re b e in g re fe rre d to w h e n w e h e a r o r re a d u ,h ich sig n s.B y a rb itra rily fixin g th e re la tio n rh ip t,n ,* t ,
C - iA P TL R I H L. 4 O R r O i R T P R L S L NA I I O N 2 3
a b o u t G re e n la n din h is n o ve l, M iss S m illa 's (^) F e e lin gF o r S n o w ( 1 9 9 4 , p p , 5 - 6 ) , g ra p h ica lly d e scrib e s'fta z z il ice ' w h ich is 'kn e a d e dto g e th e rin to a so a p ym a sh ca lle d p o rrid g e ice , w h ich g ra d u a lly fo rm s fre e - flo a tin g p la te s ,p a n c a k eic e , w h ic h o n e ,c o ld , n o o n d a yh o u r, o n a S u n d a y ,fre e z e s in to a s in g le s o lid s h e e t'.S u c h d is tin c tio n sa re to o fin e a n d e la b o ra te e ve n fo r th e E n g lish w h o a re a lw a ys ta lkin g a b o u t th e w e a th e r!T h e q u e stio n ,h o w e ve r,is - d o th e In u it a ctu a lly e xp e rie n cesn o w d iffe re n tly fro m th e E n g lish ?T h e ir la n g u a g esyste m su g g e ststh e y co n ce p tu a liz eth e w e a th e r d iffe re n tly. B u t h o w fa r is o u r e xp e rie n cea ctu a lly b o u n d e d b y o u r lin g u is tic a n d c o n c e p tu a lu n iv e rs e?
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p iq tu lu k p r q tu lu K tu q q a n ik q a n r K r u q ^- ^;- -. ^9 4 r il4 r (^) o! ^- ^i- - - ^+ ,q d r ild r d 9 L u! _ l- a p ilr a u n m a u y a a n u a q u lu r a q p u K a K m a s a k m a s a g u q tu a q m a q a y a K rnrs a k q a n ik k u k q a n ik k u k tu q n a tiru v ik n a trrrlv rk tu a q a p u n q a n lk a p iy u a q
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O n e im p lica tio n o f th is a rg u m e n ta b o u t^ cu ltu ra l co d e sis th a t, if m e a n in g^ is th e re su lt, n o t o f so m e th in gfixe d o u t th e re , in n a tu re ,b u t o f o u r so cia l,cu ltu ra l a n d lin g u istic co n ve n tio n s,th e n m e a n in gca n n e ve rb e fin a llyfixe d. W e ca n a ll 'a g re e 'to a llo w w o rd s to ca rry so m e w h a td iffe re n t m e a n in g s- a s w e h a ve fo r e x a m p le ,w ith th e w o rd 'g a y ',o r th e u s e ,b y y o u n g p e o p le ,o f th e w o rd 'w ic k e d !' (^) a s a te rm o f a p p ro v a l.O f c o u rs e ,th e re m u s t b e s o m efix in g o f
2 4 R E P R E S E N T A T I o N :C U L T U B , A LR E P R E S E N T A IO N S A N D 5 G N I F Y I N GP R A CI I C E S
m e a n in g in la n g u a g e ,o r w e w o u ld n e ve r b e a b le to u n d e rsta n do n e a n o th e r. w e c a n 'tg e tu p o n e m o rn in g a n d s u d d e n lyd e c id eto re p re s e n tth e c o n c e p to f a 'tre e ' (^) w ith th e le tte rso r th e w o rd v Y x z , a n d e x p e c tp e o p leto fo llo w w h a t w e a re sa yin g .o n th e o th e r h a n d , th e re is n o a b so lu teo r fin a l fixin g o f m e a n in g .s o c ia l a n d lin g u is tic c o n v e n tio n sd o c h a n g eo v e rtim e. I n th e la n g u a g eo f m o d e rnm a n a g e ria lis m ,w h a t w e u s e dto c a il 's tu d e n ts ',, c lie n ts , , 'p a tie n ts 'a n d 'p a s s e n g e rs 'h a v e (^) a ll b e c o m e'c u s to m e rs '.L in g u is ticc o d e sv a ry sig n ifica n tly (^) b e tw e e no n e la n g u a g ea n d a n o th e r.M a n y cu ltu re s d o n o t h a ve w o rd s (^) fo r c o n c e p tsw h ic h a re n o rm a l a n d w id e lv a c c e p ta b leto u s. w o rd s c o n s ta n tlyg o o u t o f c o m m o nu s a g e ,a n d n e w p h ra s e sa re (^) c o in e d. :th in k , fo r e x a m p le ,o f th e u s e o f 'd o w n - s iz in g 'to re p re s e n tth e p ro c e s so f firm s la y in g p e o p le o ff w o rk. E v e n w h e n th e a c tu a lw o rd s re m a in s ta b le ,th e ir co n n o ta tio n ssh ift o r th e y a cq u ire (^) a d iffe re n t n u a n ce .T h e p ro b le m is e s p e c ia llya c u tein tra n s la tio n .F o r e x a m p ie ,d o e sth e d iffe re n c ein E n g lis h b e tw e e nkn o w a n d u n d e rsta .n dco rre sp o n de xa ctly (^) to a n d ca p tu re e xa ctly (^) th e sa m e co n ce p tu a ld istin ctio n a s th e F re n ch (^) m a ke b e tw e e nsa vo ir (^) a n d co n n a itre ?P e rh a p s;b u t ca n w e b e su re?
T h e m a in p o in t is th a t m e a n in g d o e sn o t in h e re in th in g s, in th e w o rld. It is c o n s tru c te d ,p ro d u c e d .I t is th e re s u lto f a s ig n ify in gp ra c tic e- a p ra c tic eth a t p ro d u ce sm e a n in g ,th a t m o ke s (^) th in g s m e o n.
T h e re a re b ro a d iys p e a k in gth re e a p p ro a c h e sto e x p la in in gh o w re p re s e n ta tio n o f m e a n in gth ro u g h la n g u a g ew o rks. w e m a y ca ll th e se th e re fle ctive ,th e in te n tio n a la n d th e c o n s tru c tio n is to r c o n s tru c tiv is ta p p ro a c h e s .y o u m ig h t th in k o f e a cha s a n a tte m p tto a n sw e rth e q u e stio n s,'w h e re d o m e a n in g sco m e fro m? 'a n d 'h o w c a n w e te ll th e "tru e " m e a n in go f a w o rd o r im a g e? '
In th e re fle ctive a p p ro a ch , (^) m e a n in g is th o u g h t (^) to lie in th e o b je ct,p e rso n ,id e a o r e ve n t in th e re a l w o rld , a n d la n g u a g efu n ctio n s like a m irro r (^) , ro re fle ctrh e tru e m e a n in ga s it a lre a d ye x is tsin th e w o rld. A s th e p o e t G e rtru d eS te in o n c e s a id ,'A ro s eis a ro s e is a ro s e '. I n th e fo u rth c e n tu ryB C ,th e G re e k su s e dth e n o tio n o f m im e sisto e xp la in h o w la n g u a g e ,e ve n d ra w in g a n d p a in tin g , m irro re d o r im ita te d N a tu re ;th e y th o u g h t (^) o f H o m e r'sg re a tp o e m , T h e llia d , a s 'im ita tin g ' a h e ro ic se rie so f e ve n ts.so th e th e o ry w h ich sa ysth a t la n g u a g e w o rks b y sim p iy re fle ctin g (^) o r im ita tin g th e tru th th a t is a lre a d yth e re a n d fixe d in th e w o rld , is s o m e tim e sc a lle d 'm im e tic '.
O f c o u rs eth e re is a c e rta ino b v io u stru th to m im e tic th e o rie so f re p re s e n ta tio n a n d la n g u a g e .A s w e 'v e p o in te d (^) o u t, v is u a i s ig n sd o b e a rs o m ere la tio n s h ipto th e sh a p ea n d te xtu re o f th e o b je ctsw h ich th e y re p re se n t.B u t, a s w a s a lso p o in te d o u t e a rlie r,a tr, r, o - d im e n s io n a lv is u a l im a g eo f a ro s e is a s ig n - it s h o u ld n o t b e c o n fu s e dw ith th e re a l p la n t w ith th o rn sa n d b lo o m sg ro w in gin th e g a rd e n .R e m e m b e ra lso th a t th e re a re m a n y w o rd s, so u n d sa n d im a g e s w h ich w e fu lly w e il u n d e rsta n db u t w h ich a re e n tire ly fictio n a l o r fa n ta sya n d re fe r to w o rld s w h ich a re w h o lly im a g in a ry - in clu d in g , m a n y p e o p le n o w
2 6 R E P R E S F N T A T o N :C t_. lL T U R ;\ LR E p R E S E N T A T O N S A N Ds G N lF y tN Gp R A C tc ts
e ffe c ts .B u t th e m e o n in gd e p e n d s ,n o t o n th e m a te ria lq u a lity o f th e s ig n ,b u t o n its sym b o licfu n ctio n It is b e ca u sea p a rticu la r so u n d o r w o rd sta n d sfo r, syn b o liz e s o r re p re se n tsa co n ce p tth a t it ca n fu n ctio n , in la n g u a g e ,a s a sig n a n d c o n v e ym e a n in g- o r, a s th e c o n s tru c tio n is tss a y ,s ig n ify ( s ig n - i- fy ).
T h e s im p le s te x a m p leo f th is p o in t, rn h ic h is c ritic a l (^) fo r a n u n d e rs ta n d in go f h o w la n g u a g e sfu n c tio n a s re p re s e n ta tio n a ls y s te m s ,is th e fa m o u stra ffic lig h ts e xa m p le .A tra ffic tig h t is a m a ch in e w h ich p ro d u ce sd iffe re n t co lo u re d lig h ts in se q u e n ce .T h e e ffe ct (^) o f lig h t o f d iffe re n t w a ve le n g th so n th e e ye - r,vh ichis a n a tu ra l a n d m a te ria l (^) p h e n o m e n o n- p ro d u ce sth e s e n s a tio no f d iffe re n tc o io u rs .N o w th e s eth in g s c e rta in lyd o e x is t in th e m a te ria l (^) w o rld. B u t it is o u r cu ltu re w h ich b re a ksth e sp e ctru m o f lig h t in to d iffe re n tc o lo u rs ,d is tin g u is h e sth e m fro m o n e a n o th e ra n d a tta c h e sn a m e s- R e d , G re e n ,Y e llo w , B Iu e - to th e m. W e u se a w a y o f cla ssifyin gth e co lo u r sp e ctru m to cre a te (^) co lo u rs '"r,h icha re d iffe re n t fro m o n e a n o th e r.W e re p re se n to r sym b o liz e th e d iffe re n t co lo u rs a n d cla ssify th e m a cco rd in gto d iffe re n tc o lo u r- c o n c e p ts .T h is is th e c o n c e p tu a lc o lo u r s y s te mo f o u r c u ltu re .w e s a y 'o u r c u ltu re 'b e c a u s e ,o f c o u rs e ,o th e r c u ltu re sm a y d iv id e th e co lo u r sp e ctru m d iffe re n tly.w h a t's m o re , th e y ce rta in iy u se d iffe re n t (^) a ctu a l w o rd s o r |e tte rsto id e n tify d iffe re n t co lo u rs:w h a t - "te ca ll 're d ', th e F re n ch ca ll 'ro u g e 'a n d s o o n. T h is is th e lin g u is tic (^) c o d e- th e o n e w h ic h c o rre la te sc e rta in w o rd s ( s ig n s )rn 'ithc e rta inc o lo u rs( c o n c e p ts ) ,a n d th u s e n a b le su s to c o m m u n ic a tea b o u tc o lo u rsto o th e r p e o p le ,u s in g 'th e la n g u a g eo f c o lo u rs '.
B u t h o w d o w e u s e th is re p re s e n ta tio n a lo r s y m b o lics y s te mto re g u la teth e tra ffic? C o lo u rs (^) d o n o t h a ve a n y 'tru e ' o r fixe d m e a n in g in th a t se n se .R e d d o e sn o t m e a n 'S to p 'in n a tu re ,a n y m o re th a n G re e nm e a n s'G o ', (^) I n o th e r s e ttin g s ,R e d m a y s ta n d fo r, s y m b o liz eo r re p re s e n t'B lo o d ' (^) o r 'D a n g e r'o r 'C o m m u n is m ';a n d G re e nm a y re p re s e n t'I re ia n d 'o r'T h e C o u n try s id e 'o r 'E n v iro n m e n ta lis m '.E v e n (^) th e s em e a n in g sc a n c h a n g e .I n th e 'la n g u a g eo f e ie c tricp lu g s ',R e d (^) u s e d to m e a n 'th e c o n n e c tio nw ith th e p o s itiv e (^) c h a rg e ' b u t th is n a s a rb itra rily a n d w ith o u t e xp la n a tio n ch a n g e dto B ro w n! B u t th e n fo r m a n y y e a rsth e p ro d u c e rso f p lu g s h a d to a tta c ha s lip o f p a p e rte llin g p e o p le th a t th e c o d e o r c o n v e n tio nh a d c h a n g e d ,o th e rw is eh o w w o u ld th e y k n o w? R e d a n d G re e nw o rk in th e la n g u a g eo f tra ffic (^) lig h ts b e c a u s e, S to p ,a n d 'G o 'a re th e m e a n in g sw h ic h h a v e b e e na s s ig n e dto th e m in o u r c u ltu re b y th e c o d e o r c o n v e n tio n sg o v e rn in gth is la n g u a g e ,a n d th is c o d e is w id e ly k n o w n a n d a im o st u n ive rsa llv o b e ye din o u r cu ltu re a n d cu ltu re s like o u rs - th o u g h w e c a n w e ll im a g in e o th e r c u ltu re s. 'r. h ic hd id n o t p o s s e s sth e c o d e ,in w h ic h th is la n g u a g ew o u id b e a c o m p le tem y s te ry.
L e t u s sta y w ith th e e xa m p le fo r a m o m e n t, (^) to e xp lo re a little fu rth e r h o w , a c c o rd in gto th e c o n s tru c tio n is ta p p ro a c hto re p re s e n ta tio n ,c o lo u rsa n d th e 'la n g u a g eo f tra ffic lig h ts' w o rk a s a sig n ifyin g o r re p re se n ta tio n a lsyste m. R e ca ll rh e tw o re p re se n ta tio n a lsyste m sw e sp o ke o f e a rlie r.F irst, th e re is th e c o n c e p tu a lm a p o f c o lo u rsin o u r c u ltu re - th e w a y c o lo u rsa re d is tin g u is h e d
C H A P T E R T H E W O R KO F R E P R E S F N T A T I O N 2 7
fio m o n e a n o th e r,cla ssifie da n d a rra n g e din o u r m e n ta l u n ive rse .se co n d ly, th e re a re th e w a ys w o rd s o r im a g e sa re co rre la te dw ith co lo u rs in o u r la n g u a g e- o u r Iin g u istic co lo u r- co d e s.A ctu a lly, o f co u rse ,a la n g u a g eo f co lo u rs co n sistso f m o re th a n ju st th e in d ivid u a l w o rd s fo r d iffe re n t p o in ts o n th e co lo u r sp e ctru m .It a lso d e p e n d so n h o w th e y fu n ctio n in re la tio n to o n e a n o th e r- th e so rts o f th in g s w h ich a re g o ve rn e db y g ra m m a ra n d syn ta x (^) in w ritte n o r sp o ke n la n g u a g e s,w h ich a llo w u s to e xp re ssra th e r co m p le x id e a s. In th e la n g u a g eo f tra ffic lig h ts, it is th e se q u e n cea n d p o sitio n o f th e co lo u rs, a s w e ll a s th e co lo u rs th e m se lve s,w h ich e n a b leth e m to ca rrv m e a n in e a n d th u s fu n ctio n a s sig n s.
D o e sit m a tte r w h ich co lo u rs w e u se ?N o , th e co n stru ctio n istsa rg u e .T h is is b e ca u sew h a t sig n ifie s (^) is n o t th e co lo u rs th e m se lve sb u t ( a ) (^) th e fa ct th a t th e y a re d iffe re n t a n d ca n b e d istin g u ish e dfro m o n e a n o th e r;a n d ( b ) th e fa ct th a t th e y a re o rg a n iz e din to a p a rticu la r se q u e n ce- R e d fo llo w e d b y G re e n ,w ith so m e tim e sa w a rn in g A m b e r in b e tw e e nw h ich sa ys,in e ffe ct, 'G e t (^) re a d y! L ig h ts a b o u t (^) to ch a n g e .'co n stru ctio n istsp u t th is p o in t in th e fo llo w in g w a y. w h a t sig n ifie s,w h a t ca rrie sm e a n in g - th e y a rg u e- is n o t e a ch co lo u r in itse lf n o r e ve n th e co n ce p to r w o rd fo r it. It is th e d iffe re n ceb e tw e e n R e d a n d G re e nw h ich sig n ifie s.T h is is a ve ry im p o rta n t p rin cip le , in g e n e ra l,a b o u t re p re se n ta tio na n d m e a n in g ,a n d w e sh a ll re tu rn to it o n m o re th a n o n e o cca sio nin th e ch a p te rsw h ich fo llo w T h in k a b o u tit in th e se te rm s. If yo u c o u ld n 't (^) d iffe re n tia teb e tw e e nR e d a n d G re e n ,y o u c o u ld n 't u s e o n e to m e a n 'S to p 'a n d th e o th e rto m e a n 'G o '.I n th e s a m ew a y , it is o n ly th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e nth e le tte rs P a n d T w h ich e n a b leth e w o rd sH E E p to b e lin ke d , in th e E n g lish la n g u a g eco d e , to th e co n ce p t o f 'th e a n im a l w ith fo u r le g s a n d a w o o lly c o a t',a n d th e w o rd S H E E Tto 'th e m a te ria lw e u s e to c o v e ro u rs e lv e s in b e d a t n ig h t'.
In p rin cip le , a n y co m b in a tio n o f co lo u rs - like a n y co lle ctio n o f le tte rs in w ritte n la n g u a g eo r o f so u n d s in sp o ke n la n g u a g e- w o u ld d o , p ro vid e d th e y a re su fficie n tly d iffe re n t n o t to b e co n fu se d .co n stru ctio n ists (^) e xp re ssth is id e a b y s a y in gth a t a ll s ig n sa re 'a rb itra ry '.'A rb itra ry 'm e a n sth a i th e re is n o n a tu ra l re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e sig n a n d its m e a n in g (^) o r co n ce p t.sin ce R e d o n ly m e a n s'S to p 'b e c a u s eth a t is h o w th e c o d e w o rk s , (^) in p rin c ip le a n y co lo u r w o u ld d o , in clu d in g G re e n .It is th e co d e th a t fixe s th e m e a n in g ,n o t th e co lo u r itse lf. T h is a lso h a s w id e r im p lica tio n s fo r th e th e o ry o f re p re se n ta tio na n d m e a n in g in la n g u a g e .It m e a n sth a t sig n s th e m se lve s ca n n o t (^) fix m e a n in g .In ste a d ,m e a n in g d e p e n d so n fh e re la tio n b e tw e e na sig n a n d a c o n c e p tw h ic h is fix e d b y a c o d e .M e a n in g ,th e c o n s tru c tio n is tsw o u ld s a y ,is 'r e la tio n a l'.
W h y n o t te st th is p o in t a b o u t (^) th e a rb itra ry n a tu re o f th e sig n a n d th e im p o rta n ce o f th e co d e fo r yo u rse lff C o n stru cta co d e to g o ve rn (^) th e m o ve m e n to f tra ffic u sin g tw o d iffe re n t co lo u rs - Y e llo w a n d B lu e - a s in th e fo llo w in g :
F I G U R E I. 3
J u a nC o t6 n , Q uince ,C obba ge , M e lo no n d C u cu m b e r, c. 1 6 0 2.
C F ]A P T E R T H E W O R KO F R E P R E S E N T A T I O N 2 9
if w e p o s s e s sc o d e sw h ic h a llo w u s to tra n s la teo u r c o n c e p tsin to la n g u a g e- a n d v ic e v e rs a .T h e s ec o d e sa re c ru c ia lfo r m e a n in ga n d re p re s e n ta tio n .T h e y d o n o t e xist in n a tu re b u t a re th e re su lt o f so cia l co n ve n tio n s.T h e y a re a cru cia l p a rt o f o u r cu ltu re - o u r sh a re d{m a p so f m e a n in g '- w h ich w e le a rn a n d u n c o n s c io u s lyin te rn a liz ea s w e b e c o m em e m b e rso f o u r c u ltu re .T h is co n stru ctio n ista p p ro a chto la n g u a g eth u s in tro d u ce sth e sym b o lic d o m a in o f Iife , w h e re w o rd s a n d th in g s fu n ctio n a s sig n s,in to th e ve ry h e a rt o f so cia l life its e lf.
A ll th is m a y se e mra th e r a b stra ct. B u t w e ca n q u ickly d e m o n stra teits re le va n ceb y a n e xa m p le fro m p a in tin g. L o o k a t th e p a in tin g o f a still life b y th e S p a n ishp a in te r,fu a n S a n ch e z C o t6 n ( 1 5 2 1 - 1 6 2 7 ) ,e n title d Q u in ce , C a b b a g e ,M e lo n a n d C u cu m b e r ( F ig u re1. 3 ). I t s e e m sa s (^) if th e p a in te rh a s m a d e e v e rye ffo rtto u s e th e
. - 'la n g u a g eo fp a in tin g ' a c c u ra te lyto re fle c tth e s efo u r o b je c ts ,to c a p tu reo r 'im ita te n a tu re '. Is th is, th e n , a n e xa m p le o f a re fle ctive o r m im e tic fo rm o f re p re se n ta tio n- a p a in tin g re fle ctin g th e 'tru e m e a n in g 'o f w h a t a lre a d y e xistsin C o t6 n 'skitch e n? O r ca n w e fin d th e o p e ra tio no f ce rta in co d e s,
R F P R E S E N T A T ] O N :C U L T U R A LR E P R E S E N T A T I O N SA N D S I G N I I _ Y I N GP R A C T I C E S
th e la n g u a g eo f p a in tin g u se d to p ro d u ce a ce rta in m e a n in g? S ta rtw ith th e q u e s tio n ,w h a t d o e sth e p a in tin g (^) m e a nto y o u? W h a t is it 's a y in g '? T h e n g o o n to a s k ,h o r. vis it s a y in git - h o w d o e sre p re s e n ta tio nw o rk in
W rite d o rnn a n y th o u g h ts a t a ll th a t co m e to yo u o n lo o kin g a t th e p a in tin g. W h a t d o th e s eo b je c tss a y to y o u? W h a t m e a n in g sd o th e y trig g e r o ff?
N o w re a d th e e d ite d e xtra ctfro m a n a n a lysiso f th e still life b y th e a rt c ritic a n d th e o ris t,N o rm a nB ry s o n ,in c lu d e d a s R e a d in gA a t th e e n d o f th is c h a p te r.D o n 't (^) b e c o n c e rn e d ,a t th is s ta g e ,if th e la n g u a g es e e m sa little d iffic u lt a n d y o u d o n 't u n d e rs ta n da ll th e te rm s. P ic k o u t th e m a in p o in ts a b o u tth e w a y re p rcse n ta tio nw o rks in th e p a in tin g , a cco rd in gto B ry s o n. B ryso n is b y n o m e a n sth e o n ly critic o f C o t6 n 'sp a in tin g , a n d ce rta in ly d o e s n 'tp ro v id e th e o n ly 'c o rre c t're a d in go f it. T h a t'sn o t th e p o in t. T h e p o in t o f th e e x a m p leis th a t h e h e lp s u s to s e eh o w , e v e nin a s till life , th e 'la n g u a g eo f p a in tin g 'd o e sn o l fu n c tio n s im p ly to re fle c to r im ita te a m e a n in gw h ich is a ire a d yth e re in n a tu re ,b u t to p ro d u (^) ce m e a n in g s. T h e a ct o f p a in tin g is a sig n ifyin gp ra ctice. T a ke n o te , in p a rticu la r,o f w h a t B ry s o ns a y sa b o u tth e fo lio w in g p o in ts : (^1) th e w a y th e p a in tin g in vite s yo u , th e vie w e r, to lo o k- w h a t h e ca lls its 'm o d e o f s e e in g ';in p a rt, th e fu n c tio n o f th e la n g u a g eis to p o s itio n y o u , th e v ie w e r,in a c e rta inre la tio nto m e a n in g. 2 th e re la tio n s h ipto / o o d w h ic h is p o s e db y th e p a in tin g. 3 h o w , a c c o rd in gto B ry s o n ,'m a th e m a tic a lfo rm ' is u s e db y C o td nto d isto rtth e p a in tin g so a s to b rin g o u t a p a rticu la r m e a n in g. C a n a d is to rte dm e a n in gin p a in tin gb e 'tru e '? 4 th e m e a n in g o f th e d iffe re n ceb e tw e e n'cre a tu ra l'a n d 'g e o m e tric' s p a c e :th e la n g u a g eo f p a in tin g c re a te sits o w n k in d o f s p a c e. I f n e c e s s a ry ,w o rk th ro u g hth e e x tra c ta g a in ,p ic k in g (^) u p th e s es p e c ific p o in ts.
T h e so cia lco n stru ctio n istvie r,t'o f la n g u a g ea n d re p re se n ta tio nw h ich w e h a ve b e e n d is c u s s in go w e sa g re a td e a lto th e w o rk a n d in flu e n c eo f th e S w is s I in g u is t,S a u s s u re ,w h o w a s b o rn in G e n e v ain 1 8 5 7 ,d id m u c h o f h is w o rk in P a ris ,a n d d ie d in 1 9 1 3. H e is k n o w n a s th e 'fa th e ro f m o d e rn lin g u is tic s '. F o r o u r p u rp o s e s ,h is im p o rta n c elie s , n o t in h is d e ta ile dw o rk in lin g u is tic s , b u t in h is g e n e ra lvie r,r'o f re p re se n ta tio na n d th e w a y h is m o d e l o f la n g u a g e
I
