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CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY
Fuentes Drive, Roxas City, Capiz, Philippines Tel. No. (036) 6214-578 Fax No. (036) 6214- website: www.capsu.edu.ph email address: [email protected] Accredited: Accrediting Agency of Chartered Colleges and Universities of the Philippines (AACCUP) Member : Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC)
First Semester SY 2021-
Module in Ed 101
The Child
and
Adolescent Learners
And
Learning Principles
Dr. Eimee D. Potato Course Facilitator Module 5: Infancy and Toddlerhood Overview:
CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY
Fuentes Drive, Roxas City, Capiz, Philippines Tel. No. (036) 6214-578 Fax No. (036) 6214- website: www.capsu.edu.ph email address: [email protected] Accredited: Accrediting Agency of Chartered Colleges and Universities of the Philippines (AACCUP) Member : Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC) The period that comes after pre-natal or antenatal stage is infancy which, in turn, is followed by toddlerhood. Infancy and toddlerhood span, the first two years of life. Young children rapidly grow, develop, and achieve important milestones between birth and age 3, creating the foundation for later growth. Physical development is one domain of infant and toddler development. It relates to changes, growth, and skill development of the body, including development of muscles and senses. This lesson will introduce developmental milestones in addition to influences on early physical growth and development. Cognitive development in infancy refers to the development in a way a baby thinks. This includes his/her language, communication and exploration skills. Examples of cognitive activities include paying attention, remembering’ learning to talk, interacting with toys and identifying faces. Socio-emotional development has something to do with the development of a person’s ability to master one’s emotion and the ability to relate to others. It is necessarily to include temperament, attachments and social skills. Learning Outcomes: At the end of this module, you will be able to:
- Identify infant and toddler physical and motor developmental milestones and ways to support development for all infants and toddlers.
- Describe the brain’s role in infant and toddler physical development.
- Recognize influences of physical growth and development.
- Trace the physical, cognitive and socio-emotional development of infants and toddlers. Discussion: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS AND TODDLERS When healthy babies are born, some of their internal systems, such as those developed for breathing and processing food, are developed and functional. However, infants require responsive care from loving adults, proper nutrition, and appropriately stimulating environments to support the best possible physical development. Infant and toddler physical development occurs quickly, and it is essential to understand physical development during various stages. From birth, infants want to explore their world. While each child has their own schedule for development and mastering new skills, infants are often eager early on to move their mouths, eyes and bodies toward people and objects that comfort or interest them. They continue to practice skills that let them move closer to desired objects. Ongoing observation and frequent conversations with their families can help you learn what infants and toddlers are able to do, what they are learning to do, and in what areas they could use your support.
CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY
Fuentes Drive, Roxas City, Capiz, Philippines Tel. No. (036) 6214-578 Fax No. (036) 6214- website: www.capsu.edu.ph email address: [email protected] Accredited: Accrediting Agency of Chartered Colleges and Universities of the Philippines (AACCUP) Member : Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC) Walks alone Runs Pulls toys while walking Helps undress self Drinks from a cup Eats with a spoon 2 Years Begins to run Climbs onto and down from furniture without support Walks up and down steps while holding on for support Throws ball overhand Draws or copies straight lines and circles Stands on tiptoes Kicks a ball Keep in mind that the milestones above are simply the average ages at which specific development is observed. Certain conditions must exist for an infant or toddler to grow and develop. A young child’s basic needs, or physical needs, include: Food (nutritious and age-appropriate) Shelter (protection from harm) Warmth Clean air and environment Health and dental care Activity and rest We also know that the way we ourselves were raised is important to our understanding of how and in what contexts children develop. The values and beliefs held by our family and culture contribute to our knowledge of growth and development. Height and Weight ▪ It’s normal for newborn babies to drop 5 to 10 percent of their body weight within a couple of weeks of birth. That is due to the baby’s adjustment to neonatal feeding. Once they adjust to sucking, swallowing and digesting, they grow rapidly. ▪ Breastfed babies are typically heavier than bottle-fed babies through the first six months. After six months, breastfed babies usually weigh less than bottle-fed babies. ▪ In general, an infant’s length increases by about 30 percent in the first five months. ▪ A baby’s weight usually triples during the first year but slows down in the second year of life. ▪ Low percentages are not a cause for alarm as long as infants progress along a natural curve of steady development Reflexes ▪ The newborn has some basic reflexes which are, of course automatic, and serve as survival mechanisms before they have the opportunity to learn. Many reflexes which are
CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY
Fuentes Drive, Roxas City, Capiz, Philippines Tel. No. (036) 6214-578 Fax No. (036) 6214- website: www.capsu.edu.ph email address: [email protected] Accredited: Accrediting Agency of Chartered Colleges and Universities of the Philippines (AACCUP) Member : Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC) present at birth will generally subside within a few months as the baby grows and matures. Some of the most common reflexes that babies have are: Sucking Reflex: The sucking reflex is initiated when something touches the roof of an infant’s mouth. Infants have a strong sucking reflex which helps to ensure they can latch unto a bottle or breast. The sucking reflex is very strong in some infants and they may need to suck on a pacifier for comfort. Rooting Reflex: The rooting reflex is most evident when an infant’s cheek is stroked. The baby responds by turning his or her head in the direction of the touch and opening their mouth for feeding. Gripping Reflex: Babies will grasp anything that is placed in their palm. The strength of this grip is strong, and most babies can support their entire weight in their grip. Curling Reflex: When the inner sole of a baby’s foot is stroked, the infant responds by curling his or her toes. When the outer sole of a baby’s foot is stroked, the infant will respond by spreading out their toes. The Brain’s Role in Physical Development You can easily observe infants making movements with their bodies and refining their physical skills. Thanks to advances in research and technology, we can now also see how the brain changes and grows as young children develop. At birth, the brain is 25 percent of its adult size, and by age 5, it reaches 90 percent of adult size. Early-life interactions and experiences of infants and toddlers help them make sense of the world and form connections between different parts of the brain. These supportive experiences and connections help improve coordination and strengthen muscles. Research tells us that as infants repeat and practice different movements, such as turning their heads or reaching for an object, they are building and maintaining connections between brain cells. The brain is busy making sense of the experience. It is important for infants and toddlers to have time for these new experiences and to explore the world around them with you, a trusted and caring adult caregiver. The repeated experience of safely exploring together helps infants and toddlers learn they can trust you, while also ensuring that their brains focus on learning, developing, and making connections. If infants and toddlers do not have nurturing and responsive adults to help keep them safe, their brains will instinctually focus on survival and they will have less opportunity to create and strengthen connections for further skill development, including physical growth.
CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY
Fuentes Drive, Roxas City, Capiz, Philippines Tel. No. (036) 6214-578 Fax No. (036) 6214- website: www.capsu.edu.ph email address: [email protected] Accredited: Accrediting Agency of Chartered Colleges and Universities of the Philippines (AACCUP) Member : Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC) ability to think and reason. You already learned a little bit about Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, and in this section, we’ll apply that model to cognitive tasks during infancy and toddlerhood. Piaget described intelligence in infancy as sensorimotor or based on direct, physical contact where infants use senses and motor skills to taste, feel, pound, push, hear, and move in order to experience the world. These basic motor and sensory abilities provide the foundation for the cognitive skills that will emerge during the subsequent stages of cognitive development. Piaget and Sensorimotor Intelligence How do infants connect and make sense of what they are learning? Remember that Piaget believed that we are continuously trying to maintain cognitive equilibrium, or balance, between what we see and what we know (Piaget, 1954). Children have much more of a challenge in maintaining this balance because they are constantly being confronted with new situations, new words, new objects, etc. All this new information needs to be organized, and a framework for organizing information is referred to as a schema. Children develop schemas through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. For example, 2-year-old Deja learned the schema for dogs because her family has a Poodle. When Deja sees other dogs in her picture books, she says, “Look mommy, dog!” Thus, she has assimilated them into her schema for dogs. One day, Deja sees a sheep for the first time and says, “Look mommy, dog!” Having a basic schema that a dog is an animal with four legs and fur, Deja thinks all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. When Deja’s mom tells her that the animal she sees is a sheep, not a dog, Deja must accommodate her schema for dogs to include more information based on her new experiences. Deja’s schema for dog was too broad since not all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. She now modifies her schema for dogs and forms a new one for sheep. Development of Object Permanence
CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY
Fuentes Drive, Roxas City, Capiz, Philippines Tel. No. (036) 6214-578 Fax No. (036) 6214- website: www.capsu.edu.ph email address: [email protected] Accredited: Accrediting Agency of Chartered Colleges and Universities of the Philippines (AACCUP) Member : Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC) A critical milestone during the sensorimotor period is the development of object permanence. O bject permanence is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it continues to exist. The infant is now capable of making attempts to retrieve the object. Piaget thought that, at about 8 months, babies first understand the concept of objective permanence, but some research has suggested that infants seem to be able to recognize that objects have permanence at much younger ages (even as young as 4 months of age). Other researchers, however, are not convinced (Mareschal & Kaufman, 2012). It may be a matter of “grasping vs. mastering” the concept of objective permanence. Overall, we can expect children to grasp the concept that objects continue to exist even when they are not in sight by around 8 months old, but memory may play a factor in their consistency. Because toddlers (i.e., 12–24 months old) have mastered object permanence, they enjoy games like hide-and-seek, and they realize that when someone leaves the room they will come back (Loop, 2013). Toddlers also point to pictures in books and look in appropriate places when you ask them to find objects. Learning and Memory Abilities in Infants Memory is central to cognitive development. Our memories form the basis for our sense of self, guide our thoughts and decisions, influence our emotional reactions, and allow us to learn (Bauer, 2008). It is thought that Piaget underestimated memory ability in infants (Schneider, 2015). As mentioned when discussing the development of infant senses, within the first few weeks of birth, infants recognize their caregivers by face, voice, and smell. Sensory and caregiver memories are apparent in the first month, motor memories by 3 months, and then, at about 9 months, more complex memories including language (Mullally & Maguire, 2014). There is agreement that memory is fragile in the first months of life, but that improves with age. Repeated sensations and brain maturation are required in order to process and recall events (Bauer, 2008). Infants remember things that happened weeks and
CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY
Fuentes Drive, Roxas City, Capiz, Philippines Tel. No. (036) 6214-578 Fax No. (036) 6214- website: www.capsu.edu.ph email address: [email protected] Accredited: Accrediting Agency of Chartered Colleges and Universities of the Philippines (AACCUP) Member : Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC) with that of someone else and then take their turn again when the other person’s vocalization has stopped. Cooing initially involves making vowel sounds like “oooo.” Later, as the baby moves into babbling (see below), consonants are added to vocalizations such as “nananananana.” Babbling and Gesturing. Between 6 and 9 months, infants begin making even more elaborate vocalizations that include the sounds required for any language. Guttural sounds, clicks, consonants, and vowel sounds stand ready to equip the child with the ability to repeat whatever sounds are characteristic of the language heard. These babies repeat certain syllables (ma-ma-ma, da-da-da, ba-ba-ba), a vocalization called babbling because of the way it sounds. Eventually, these sounds will no longer be used as the infant grows more accustomed to a particular language. Deaf babies also use gestures to communicate wants, reactions, and feelings. Because gesturing seems to be easier than vocalization for some toddlers, sign language is sometimes taught to enhance one’s ability to communicate by making use of the ease of gesturing. The rhythm and pattern of language are used when deaf babies sign just as when hearing babies babble. Holophrasic Speech. Children begin using their first words at about 12 or 13 months of age and may use partial words to convey thoughts at even younger ages. These one-word expressions are referred to as holophrasic speech ( holophrase ). For example, the child may say “ju” for the word “juice” and use this sound when referring to a bottle. The listener must interpret the meaning of the holophrase. When this is someone who has spent time with the child, interpretation is not too difficult. They know that “ju” means “juice” which means the baby wants some milk! But, someone who has not been around the child will have trouble knowing what is meant. Imagine the parent who exclaims to a friend, “Ezra’s talking all the time now!” The friend hears only “ju da ga” which, the parent explains, means “I want some milk when I go with Daddy.” Theories of Language Development How is language learned? Each major theory of language development emphasizes different aspects of language learning: that infants’ brains are genetically attuned to language, that infants must be taught, and that infants’ social impulses foster language learning. The first two theories of language development represent two extremes in the level of interaction required for language to occur.
1. Chomsky and the language acquisition device This theory posits that infants teach themselves and that language learning is genetically programmed. The view is known as nativism and was advocated by Noam Chomsky, who suggested that infants are equipped with a neurological construct referred to as the language acquisition device (LAD) , which makes infants ready for language. The LAD allows children, as their brains develop, to derive the rules of grammar quickly and effectively from the speech they hear every day. Therefore, language develops as long as the infant is exposed to it. No teaching, training, or reinforcement is
CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY
Fuentes Drive, Roxas City, Capiz, Philippines Tel. No. (036) 6214-578 Fax No. (036) 6214- website: www.capsu.edu.ph email address: [email protected] Accredited: Accrediting Agency of Chartered Colleges and Universities of the Philippines (AACCUP) Member : Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC) required for language to develop. Instead, language learning comes from a particular gene, brain maturation, and the overall human impulse to imitate.
2. Skinner and reinforcement This theory is the opposite of Chomsky’s theory because it suggests that infants need to be taught language. This idea arises from behaviorism. Learning theorist, B. F. Skinner, suggested that language develops through the use of reinforcement. Sounds, words, gestures, and phrases are encouraged by following the behavior with attention, words of praise, treats, or anything that increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. This repetition strengthens associations, so infants learn the language faster as parents speak to them often. For example, when a baby says “ma-ma,” the mother smiles and repeats the sound while showing the baby attention. So, “ma-ma” is repeated due to this reinforcement. 3. Social pragmatics Another language theory emphasizes the child’s active engagement in learning the language out of a need to communicate. Social impulses foster infant language because humans are social beings and we must communicate because we are dependent on each other for survival. The child seeks information, memorizes terms, imitates the speech heard from others, and learns to conceptualize using words as language is acquired. Tomasello & Herrmann (2010) argue that all human infants, as opposed to chimpanzees, seek to master words and grammar in order to join the social world. Many would argue that all three of these theories (Chomsky’s argument for nativism, conditioning, and social pragmatics) are important for fostering the acquisition of language (Berger, 2004). Part 2 Evaluation:
- Based on Piaget’s sensorimotor stage, reflect on how you, as a future parent or teacher can enhance infant and toddlers’ cognitive development. (1-2 paragraphs)
CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY
Fuentes Drive, Roxas City, Capiz, Philippines Tel. No. (036) 6214-578 Fax No. (036) 6214- website: www.capsu.edu.ph email address: [email protected] Accredited: Accrediting Agency of Chartered Colleges and Universities of the Philippines (AACCUP) Member : Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC) Here are the milestones of the baby and the toddler’ s emotional development and social development: Birth to 3 months: The first three months are a time all about helping an infant learn to feel safe, comfortable, secure, and curious about his or her world. “Your smile and gentle touch help me to feel safe and happy.” When caregivers respond to an infant’s cues with comfort and care, infants develop trust. “Your soothing voice and touch helps me to feel safe, secure, and loved.” Infants^ use^ sounds,^ facial^ expressions,^ and^ body^ movements^ to^ tell^ caregivers^ what they need and how they are feeling. “I am learning how to tell you what I need. Sometimes I look away when I need a break. I yawn sometimes when I am feeling tired. Thank you for watching and getting to know me.” 3 to 6 months: The infant is active, responsive, and increasingly in control of his or her body. “I stretch my arms toward you when I want you to pick me up and hold me gently.” Infant^ offers^ smiles^ and^ communicates^ with^ a gaze and basic vocalizations. “I’m smiling to let you know I am ready to communicate.” Sense of security and well-being are totally dependent upon relationships with important caregivers. Emphasis^ is^ on^ routine^ and^ exploration—showing^ caregivers^ what^ they^ like^ and dislike, and how they prefer to sleep, eat, and play. “I’m beginning to notice daily routines and the things we do together. When you turn the lights down, I know that it is time for sleep.” 6 to 9 months: Moving^ and^ exploring^ is^ the^ goal^ –^ infants^ become eager explorers who are thrilled to discover that they can make things happen.
CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY
Fuentes Drive, Roxas City, Capiz, Philippines Tel. No. (036) 6214-578 Fax No. (036) 6214- website: www.capsu.edu.ph email address: [email protected] Accredited: Accrediting Agency of Chartered Colleges and Universities of the Philippines (AACCUP) Member : Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC) Infants^ are^ learning^ to^ solve^ problems.^ “When^ a^ toy^ drops,^ I^ look^ to^ see^ where^ it went. I expect you will help me to get it back. I then try it again to see if I can make the same thing happen again.” An infant is beginning to understand that people still exist even when they are out of sight. “I realize that my mommy is about to leave me. I will protest in hopes that she stays. Being separated from her is hard for me.” 9 to 12 months: Infants are enjoying increased independence. “Please stay calm even when I demand to do things on my own. It’s hard work for me to learn and figure out all of these new things and sometimes I get frustrated, but I want to keep trying.” Infants can understand more than they can verbally communicate. Infants enjoy doing things over and over again. “Watch me practice and figure out how things work! Repetition is also helping me build my memory!” Infants take action with a goal in mind. “When I crawl away from you quickly, I am not trying to upset you. I am having fun and do not want my diaper changed right now. This is how I take control of my world and let you know how I am feeling. Please talk to me and give me time to transition from my activity, and let me know that when we’re done I can go back to what I was doing.” 12 to 18 months: Infants^ and^ toddlers^ are^ watching^ others^ and^ imitate^ what^ they^ see.^ “I^ have^ been watching and am able to use things the way they are supposed to be used. Watch me talk on this toy telephone!” Infants and toddlers are using skills to explore and discover the boundaries of what they can do. “I may get frustrated when you try to feed me and I want to do it on my own.” Infants and toddlers are beginning to understand feelings of self and others. “My feelings can be hard for me to handle. I may become frustrated and have tantrums. I need your help to calm down.” 18 to 24 months: Toddlers work hard to be in control, explore the boundaries of their experiences, and engage in problem solving. “I am beginning to sort things. Notice how I put my train cars in one place and all of my other cars in another.”
CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY
Fuentes Drive, Roxas City, Capiz, Philippines Tel. No. (036) 6214-578 Fax No. (036) 6214- website: www.capsu.edu.ph email address: [email protected] Accredited: Accrediting Agency of Chartered Colleges and Universities of the Philippines (AACCUP) Member : Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC)
- Psychosocial Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust
- Main Question: “Can I trust the people around me?”
- Virtue: Hope The first stage of Erik Erikson’s centers around the infant’s basic needs being met by the parents. The infant depends on the parents, especially the mother, for food, sustenance, and comfort. The child’s relative understanding of world and society come from the parents and their interaction with the child. If the parents expose the child to warmth, regularity, and dependable affection, the infant’s view of the world will be one of trust. Should the parents fail to provide a secure environment and to meet the child’s basic need a sense of mistrust will result. According to Erik Erikson, the major developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or not other people, especially primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers are consistent sources of food, comfort, and affection, an infant learns trust that others are dependable and reliable. If they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant instead learns mistrust that the world is in an undependable, unpredictable, and possibly a dangerous place. Will: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Toddlers, 2 to 3 years)
- Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
- Main Question: “Can I do things myself or must I always rely on others?”
- Virtue: Will
CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY
Fuentes Drive, Roxas City, Capiz, Philippines Tel. No. (036) 6214-578 Fax No. (036) 6214- website: www.capsu.edu.ph email address: [email protected] Accredited: Accrediting Agency of Chartered Colleges and Universities of the Philippines (AACCUP) Member : Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC) As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they begin to explore their surroundings. The parents still provide a strong base of security from which the child can venture out to assert their will. The parents’ patience and encouragement help foster autonomy in the child. Highly restrictive parents, however, are more likely to instill in the child a sense of doubt and reluctance to attempt new challenges. As they gain increased muscular coordination and mobility, toddlers become capable of satisfying some of their own needs. They begin to feed themselves, wash and dress themselves, and use the bathroom. If caregivers encourage self-sufficient behavior, toddlers develop a sense of autonomy a sense of being able to handle many problems on their own. But if caregivers demand too much too soon, are capable, or ridicule early attempts at self-sufficiency, children may instead develop shame and doubt their ability to handle problems. Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. This stage also serves as an important building block for future development. Kids who have confidence in their skills are more likely to succeed in subsequent tasks such as mastering social, academic, and other skills. Part 3 Evaluation:
- Reflect on how you, as a future parent or teacher, can enhance infant and toddlers’ socio-emotional development. (2 paragraphs)
