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Conditioning and Learning: Understanding Classical and Operant Conditioning, Study notes of Psychology

Fayetteville State University (FSU)Psychology

This study guide by clara b. Jones explores the concepts of classical and operant conditioning, focusing on reflex responses, emotional responses, and the association between stimuli and responses. The basics of classical conditioning, including habituation, sensitization, imprinting, acquisition, extinction, generalization, and stimulus discrimination. Operant conditioning is also discussed, with an emphasis on the consequences of responding and the role of reinforcement and punishment. The document also touches upon the application of these theories in human behavior and therapy.

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GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSYC 210)
Study Guide: Conditioning and Learning
Clara B. Jones, Ph.D.
What is “learning”? A relatively permanent change in behavior that can be
attributed to experience.
There are elementary forms of non-associative learning [e.g., habituation (a decrease in
response as a result of successive exposure to a stimulus); sensitization (an increase in
response as a result of successive exposure to a stimulus)]. Give examples of these.
--Association (from Aristotle); connectionism
An elementary form of associative learning is “imprinting” (n.b. Konrad Lorenz).
Search “impringting” on www.google.com. True imprinting assumes that there are
“critical periods” (define). Do humans have “critical periods”? Humans are thought to
have “sensitive periods” for some traits (e.g., language learning).
Classical conditioning (also, respondent or Pavlovian conditioning)
• Form of learning in which reflex responses (n.b. “reflex arc”; reflexes controlled
by spinal cord) or strong emotional responses (autonomic nervous system
responses) are associated with new stimuli (S--Æ S learning)
• S= stimulus: information; events in the world; any physical energy sensed by an
organism
• R= response; a behavior, motor pattern, or action pattern; also, neural impulse or
glandular activity
• Classical conditioning: the focus in classical conditioning is on what happens
before a R (antecedents)
• In classical conditioning, antecedent events become associated with one another.
A S that does not produce a R (a “neutral” S called a “conditioned stimulus” or
CS) becomes associated with one that does (an “unconditioned stimulus” or US)
• Learn model describing classical conditioning.
• How did Ivan Pavlov demonstrate classical conditioning in his famous
experiment? Recall that Pavlov was primarily interested in studying digestion.
Elements of conditioning
• Acquisition: training
• In classical conditioning, conditioned response (CR) must be reinforced or
strengthened
• In classical conditioning, conditioned response (CR) is reinforced whenever
conditioned stimulus (CS) is followed by, or paired with, an unconditioned
stimulus (US)
• US should follow soon after CS (contiguity)
Higher-order conditioning
• In classical conditioning, CS used to reinforce further learning
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GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSYC 210)

Study Guide: Conditioning and Learning Clara B. Jones, Ph.D.

What is “learning”? A relatively permanent change in behavior that can be attributed to experience.

There are elementary forms of non-associative learning [e.g., habituation (a decrease in response as a result of successive exposure to a stimulus); sensitization (an increase in response as a result of successive exposure to a stimulus)]. Give examples of these.

--Association (from Aristotle); connectionism

An elementary form of associative learning is “imprinting” (n.b. Konrad Lorenz). Search “impringting” on www.google.com. True imprinting assumes that there are “critical periods” (define). Do humans have “critical periods”? Humans are thought to have “sensitive periods” for some traits (e.g., language learning).

Classical conditioning (also, respondent or Pavlovian conditioning)

  • Form of learning in which reflex responses (n.b. “reflex arc”; reflexes controlled by spinal cord) or strong emotional responses (autonomic nervous system responses) are associated with new stimuli (S--Æ S learning)
  • S= stimulus: information; events in the world; any physical energy sensed by an organism
  • R= response; a behavior, motor pattern, or action pattern; also, neural impulse or glandular activity
  • Classical conditioning: the focus in classical conditioning is on what happens before a R (antecedents)
  • In classical conditioning, antecedent events become associated with one another. A S that does not produce a R (a “neutral” S called a “conditioned stimulus” or CS) becomes associated with one that does (an “unconditioned stimulus” or US)
  • Learn model describing classical conditioning.
  • How did Ivan Pavlov demonstrate classical conditioning in his famous experiment? Recall that Pavlov was primarily interested in studying digestion.

Elements of conditioning

  • Acquisition: training
  • In classical conditioning, conditioned response (CR) must be reinforced or strengthened
  • In classical conditioning, conditioned response (CR) is reinforced whenever conditioned stimulus (CS) is followed by, or paired with, an unconditioned stimulus (US)
  • US should follow soon after CS (contiguity)

Higher-order conditioning

  • In classical conditioning, CS used to reinforce further learning
  • In classical conditioning, CS may be strong enough to be used as US

Extinction: If US never follows CS, conditioning will extinguish; thus, classical conditioning can be weakened by removing reinforcement leading to inhibition or suppression of R (i.e., decreased likelihood of R)

  • Does the R disappear? How can we test this? Example.

Spontaneuous recovery: Occurs when period of rest follows extinction

  • Suggests that organism is “prepared” (M.E.P. Seligman) to respond
  • Organism “checks out” environment (i.e., adaptive response: Charles Darwin)

Generalization: S similar to CS evoke a similar R

  • May be adaptive

Stimulus Discrimination: Learning not to generalize

  • Selectivity
  • Narrowing R

How much human learning is based on classical conditioning? (e.g., likes and dislikes; phobias)

  • Dependence on reflexes
  • Dependence upon emotional or “gut” Rs (“flight or fight” Rs)
  • Phobias: conditioned emotional Rs [a fear that persists even when no realistic danger exists (e.g., agoraphobia; fear of snakes)]
  • Abnormal behavior that can be explained by stimulus generalization (Example)
  • How to reverse phobias in therapy? Desentization: gradually exposing individual to S

Vicarious or secondary conditioning

  • Occurs when we observe another person’s emotional responses to a S and, by observation, learn to respond likewise [e.g., horror movies; various likes and dislikes (e.g., food)]
  • Antecedent can be someone else’s R (e.g., food preferences)

Rescorla’s contingency theory: learning creates expectancies (“If, then.”) in the world

  • Expectancies alter behavior
  • For classical conditioning, the CS predicts the US
  • Is classical conditioning a “stupid” process? In the cognitive view, the human organism is a “scientist” seeking information about the world.

Classical conditioning and Operant conditioning

  • Classical conditioning: involuntary, passive
  • Operant conditioning: voluntary, active (organism operates on the environment)

Premack’s “Prepotent Principle”: any frequent (or, prepotent) R can be used to reinforce an infrequent R (e.g., food can be used as a reward to induce individuals to take out the trash or clean their room)

Delay of reinforcement: reinforcement should occur soon after R

Response chaining: Why do you work hard to receive a delayed R (e.g., a paycheck, a diploma)?

  • Can anticipate future reward
  • Reinforced partially [partial (intermittent) reinforcement more effective than continuous reinforcement]: Skinner’s five “schedules of reinforcement” (continuous, fixed interval, variable interval, fixed ratio, variable ratio)
  • Single reinforcer can maintain long chain or Rs

Two-factor learning: combination of classical conditioning and operant conditioning

Applied learning

  • “Token economy”: secondary reinforcers can be exchanged for primary reinforcers [used in education and other institutions (e.g., prisons, mental institutions)]
  • Generalized reinforcers (e.g., $$): $$ may acquire not only primary reinforcers but may have its own reinforcement/reward value (e.g., prestige)
  • “Superstitious” behavior: habits of some athletes before throwing a foul shot or before batting; nervous “tics” (abnormal behavior)
  • Punishment: How effective is it? --punishment is generally aversive , thus, via classical conditioning, people and situations associated with punishment also become aversive --punishment also leads to escape and avoidance --punishment may also lead to aggression (the “frustration/aggression” hypothesis)
  • Possibly most effective method of behavioral control is to reward alternative Rs
  • The three methods of controlling simple behavior are: (1) reinforcement; (2) non- reinforcement or extinction; and, (3) punishment

Applied learning, continued: educational applications

  • Learning is based on information
  • Information= meaningful units of stimulation (e.g., electromagnetic energy); thus, learning not simply mechanical
  • Cognitive maps: expectancies
  • Learning as information-processing: learning creates expectancies about events in the world (e.g., Robert Rescorla’s contingency theory)
  • Feedback (as in computer-based learning): information about what effect a R had; also called “knowledge of results”; increased feedback almost always improves learning and performance
  • Learning aids: feedback is most effective when it is frequent, immediate, and detailed
  • Programmed instruction: teaches students in a format requiring precise answers about information as it is presented (computer-assisted instruction: CAI)
  • CAI: students work at individual computer terminals
  • CAI allows students to freely make mistakes and to learn from mistakes

Cognitive learning: Beyond conditioning

  • Is all learning just a connection between S & R?
  • Cognitive learning refers to understanding, problem-solving, knowing, anticipating, or other higher mental processes (e.g., memory, thinking, language)
  • Cognitive maps: an internal representation of spatial relationships (n.b. the hippocampus and spatial memory)
  • How do we navigate the world?

Latent learning: learning that occurs, apparently, without reinforcement

  • Is curiosity reinforcing and adaptive?
  • Is there a “motive” to explore?
  • Latent learning may lead to “discovery learning” (application in “alternative education”)

Social or Observational learning (Albert Bandura: see text)

  • Three rules: (1) pay attention and remember; (2) reproduce what was modeled; and, (3) is model rewarded?
  • Modeling: a component of social learning --any process in which information is imparted by example, before direct practice is allowed --What would happen if you had to experience everything you learned or if you learned only by verbal instruction (didactic learning/teaching)?
  • Imitation: not all observed models are imitated --attractive, rewarded, admired, high-status models are likely to be imitated