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GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSYC 210)
Study Guide: Memory and Forgetting
Clara B. Jones, Ph.D.
Do classical and operant conditioning explain human behavior?
--Critics of the behaviorist approach note that the principles of conditioning discovered in animal research
apply to humans in cases where the human behaviors are “simpler” (i.e., not “complex”—What does this
mean?) or closer to animal behavior (e.g., the mentally retarded or children or emotionally disturbed).
These critics argue that behaviorist descriptions omit what is most uniquely human (e.g., planning into
future and the use of symbolic and abstract systems).
A. One of first psychological studies was on verbal learning and memory: Hermann Ebbinghaus
(1885—first psychologist to conduct experiments on a “higher mental process”
1. For Ebbinghaus, the only difference between learning and memory is the timing
involved: (a) if one focuses on the immediate aspects of an experience, one is studying
learning; (b) if one focuses on later consequences of the experience, one is studying
memory
2. To study learning, Ebbinghaus knew he had to have materials to be learned that were
totally new/novel to his subject. He chose “nonsense syllables” and used the method,
“serial anticipation” whereby the subject learned the syllables and the experimenter waits
for some period of time (“retention interval”) before retesting the subject.
3. The resulting curve is Ebbinghaus’ famous “curve of forgetting” with its characteristic
shape.
4. Ebbinghaus also studied interference and decay: (a) proactive interference occurs when
something learned at an earlier time interferes with something learned recently; (b)
retroactive interference occurs when something learned recently interferes with
something learned at a previous time.
5. Ebbinghaus also found “serial position effects:” (a) “primacy effect” occurs when
something learned at an earlier time is more readily recalled; (b) “recency effect” occurs
when something learned at a later time is more readily recalled.
6. Ebbinghaus also found another result: (a) “distributed practice” is better than “massed
practice;” thus, it is better to spread out practice sessions rather than to lump them all
together (n.b. You practice “massed practice” when you cram before an exam!).
B. Paired associates learning was developed by Mary Calkins (1894). In PAL, the subject must learn
to give a particular response to a particular stimulus. The stimuli are generally presented in
random order. Calkins’ studies showed, in part, that “meaningfulness” is not defined simply as
“familiarity” but may be defined as the average number of responses given to an item in 60 sec in
a word-association task (see Noble, 1963; also Thorndike & Lorge, 1944). The most common
uses of the paired-associates method have been in the study of interference and transfer (“positive
transfer” and “negative transfer”).
C. “Incidental learning” may also occur. This area of investigation often discussed in association
with information processing frameworks.
D. “You are all wired up!” Memory is an active system that receives, stores, organizes (perception),
alters, and recovers information. In some ways, memory is like a computer; in some ways, it is
not. It is, however, an “input-output” device. Incoming information is first encoded or changed
into a usable form (what?)—like typing data into a computer. Information is then stored or held
in the system (where?). Memories must be retrieved or taken out of storage. Why is this
necessary in order for learning to occur?
1. First memory system is sensory memory: sensory memory holds, for a few seconds or
less, an exact copy of what is seen or heard (icon, echo). Sensory memory holds
information long enough for it to be transferred to second memory system.
2. Short term memory (STM): selective attention, controls what information is moved to
STM. STM;s are also brief, but longer than sensory memories. How are STM’s stored?
Stored as sounds but also images. STM acts as temporary storehouse for small amounts
of information. STM filters out unimportant information and provides working memory
where we do much of our thinking. STM very sensitive to interruption or interference,
