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I. Why read the Bible Empires of the ancient world :Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Seleucid, and Roman A. Canons of the Bible Testaments- comes from Latin term for covenant (testamentum) Scripture - writings that function authoritatively for the faith and practice of a religious group. Does not necessarily refer to a formal, fixed number of texts. Canon - Comes from Greek work for a reed or rod used for measuring or keeping straight. Denotes what is “normative” or “standard” list of authoritative texts that function as scripture. Canonization of the Hebrew Bible was slow, and somewhat obscure The Christian Old Testament is in essence identical to the Hebrew Bible. The Old Testament canon is dependant on the development of the Hebrew canon. Hebrew Scripture has three parts:
- Torah - The first set of writings to function as authoritative scripture was (some version of the Torah) Also known as the Pentateuch
- Next set of writings to function as authoritative scripture is the Prophets (also known as the Nevi’im ) which was a loose collection of works a. This includes the historical books known as the “Former Prophets” b. As well as the “Latter Prophets”
- The final set of writings functioning as authoritative scripture was the Ketuvim , or Writings Taken together, these three sections are sometimes known as the “ Tanakh ” Primary difference between the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament is the arrangement of the books- in particular the Prophets. In the Hebrew Bible, all of the Prophets constitute the second book, the Christian canon separates the Former Prophets (Joshua- Kings) and the Latter Prophets (Isaiah-Malachi). Put another way:.. The Hebrew Bible is organized by degree of authority The Old Testament (Christina Scripture) is organized by genre Catholic Old Testament shares the same arrangement as the Protestant Old Testament, except Catholic Old Testament contains additional writings not found in the Protestant or Hebrew Bible. This is because the Catholic Bible is from the Septuagint (LXX) which are the Greek translations of the Hebrew Scriptures. It was named after the 72 (not the 70,weirdly) translators allegedly chosen to work on the text The Old Testament(s)
The Catholic Old Testament follows the Septuagint by including these extra books not found in the Hebrew Bible This was before the Hebrew Scriptures were more fixed not to include the additional texts in the Catholic Old Testament. The Catholic Old Testament simply follows early Christian traditions in having that version as its Old Testament Canon. Catholics call these wirings as deuterocanonical (“second canon”) so Catholics recognize their contested status. Protestant Bibles which include these extra books collect them in a section known as the “Apocrypha” (that is, “hidden”) Protestant reformers (16th^ Century CE) thought the Old Testament should correspond to the Hebrew Bible, which in its final form excluded the additional writings. Therefore, the Protestants separated the additional writings from the traditional Christian Old Testament, put them in an appendix and called them the Apocrypha. The Canonization of the New Testament The time frame for both the writing and the canonization of the New The Testament is much smaller than that of the Hebrew Scriptures. However, the process was very similar. Rather than one epicenter of authority, there were multiple collections of works. Paul’s letters (Pauline letters) came first. Next came the four- Gospel collection (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) which came into existence no later than the latter half of the 2nd^ Century. The third collection was known as the “Catholic Letters” Here, catholic comes from a Greek word that means “universal” or “general.” The early Christian highly valued texts with apostolic connections- meaning either written by an apostle (one closely related to Jesus), written at the time of the apostles, or simply in agreement with apostolic teaching. Also they valued writings that are universally relevant and adaptable to all Christian churches in all places and in all times. Finally, writings that had early and
widespread use and had consistently proved to be beneficial in worship or faith. In general,
Christians affirmed the authority of the New Testament because of its apostolicity, universality and traditional use. In much the same way that some authoritative works were excluded from the Hebrew Canon, so too with the New Testament B. Textual Traditions of the Bible Modern Bibles are based on the study of thousands of ancient manuscripts. Autographs - are the original texts of the Bible. We have no autographs of any biblical book. There are no original manuscripts, but thousands of copies that differ from one another. As a result of this process of transmission, all biblical books contain variant readings. Textual criticism - is the study of those textual variants.
For the New Testament, the textual tradition consists of more than 5 thousand Greek manuscripts in addition to quotes from early Christian writers and ancient translations of the New Testament (Syriac, Coptic, Latin, Armenian, and Georgian). Scholars group the New Testament manuscripts according to text types. When a variant reading appears in more than one test type, there is a higher probability that it represents the earlier reading. New Testament textual criticism does not use a base text like the Old Testament, but collates and compares all the manuscripts. The result of the “eclectic” (or varied) approach is a reconstructed text that is not actually represented by any one text. C. Translations of the Bible: The original language of the Old Testament was Hebrew (with some portions in Aramaic) and the original language of the New Testament was Greek. In the late 4th^ century, the Christian theologian Jerome began translating the Old and New Testaments into Latin (the language spoken by the Ancient Romans), which came to be known as the Latin Vulgate, which western Christians used for nearly a thousand years. Vulgate means common, so it refers to it being the common version of the Latin Bible. Protestant Reformers believed the Bible should be in the language of the people reading it. So Martin Luther translated the Bible into German, publishing the New Testament in 1522 and the entire Bible in 1534. In English, John Wycliffe translated the Latin Vulgate into English in manuscript form (1384). Using a printing press, William Tyndale produced the first printed English Bible, with the New Testament in 1526 and the Pentateuch in 1530. The King James Bible became the most influential of all English translations and was also known as the Authorized Version. It was translated from Hebrew and Greek and first appeared in 1611. Ideas of translating the Bible Formal Correspondence: Literal word-for-word translation, maintaining the grammatical forms each translated word-- a word for word translation Dynamic Equivalence: Focuses on the meaning of the text and tries to recreate that meaning using contemporary language-- meaning for meaning translation The most reliable modern translations are produced by translation committees. The committees will decide which translation principle will guide their work: formal correspondence or dynamic equivalence. Formal correspondence takes a more literal approach to translation- a word for word translation. Dynamic equivalence focuses on the function of the original language and attempts to re-create the reading experience in the target language- meaning for meaning translation and concerned with faithfully expressing the message of the original text. Translations are often guided by other considerations such as theology, literacy, and the evolution of the English language. A good method of Bible study includes a comparison of several modern translations. D. How to read the Bible
Early Christian interpretation- In the early history of the Christian church, those who wrote about the Bible looked at different ways to communicate the massage of the Bible to their communities. They understood the test to have hidden meanings and symbolic value. We call that approach allegory. For example, they compared Jonah and the whale story to the allegory of Jesus’ death, burial and resurrection. Others took a more literal approach to the biblical text, focusing on the more plain sense of the text, which most readers use today. Post Reformation Interpretation- In this period, readers began to pay special attention to the culture of the ancient world. They used hermeneutics (the art of interpretation) and asked “what did the Bible mean, and what does the Bible mean? There is a focus on historical matters related to the origin of the text. Many methods of interpretation use the term “ criticism ” in their title. This means the serious analytical study if a text. New Trends In Interpretation- Now instead of too much attention to the origin of the text, scholars look to balance those concerns with attention to literary qualities of the text. They focus on how the text itself communicates via language. Others focus on how ancient and contemporary readers might receive the biblical text. In summary, when you consider the question of how to read the Bible, many approaches have been used in the past and we can learn from them.
- Question of Origin- The Bible originated in the ancient Near East and the Mediterranean world. It is helpful to explore the cultural codes of the world in which the text originated. Archaeology is an essential tool to help interpreters. It reveals the material culture and life of the people in the text. Geography is important because it has an impact on ancient Israel’s move from groups with no central authority (like in the period of judges ) to a central monarchy in Jerusalem. Also cultural customs- YHWH (the divine name often translated as “Lord”) takes part with a covenant ceremony with Abram with animals cut in tow. Exploration if how biblical texts came to be is important- questions of authorship and sources and redaction. Critical tools: Source criticism - the analysis of a biblical text to determine what sources were used in its composition. Form criticism - The analysis and classification of literary types according to their form- such as hymns, laments, sagas, etc. Traditional History - The study of the development and reconfiguration of key events, institutions, and ideas in the Old and New Testaments. Redaction Criticism - The analysis of how a text’s sources have been adapted and edited, so that an author’s literary and theological emphases can be detected.
Babylonians. The Akkadians were Semites, the group of peoples to which the Hebrews belonged. The most famous of the kingdoms from this area was Babylonia, whose most famous king was Hammurabi, known for his law codes. In addition to law codes, there are important creation accounts such as the Enuma Elish and the Epic of Gilgamesh , which includes a flood story. Moving farther south along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, we find a land bridge called Syria-Palestine or Canaan. Much of the Old Testament narrative takes place in Palestine. Today this area is known as the “ Holy Land ” for the Abrahamic faiths (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam claim Abraham as an ancestor), but in the ancient world its primary value was strategic. Those who sought to trade between the major civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia had to travel by way of one of the highways through Palestine. The two major roads between Damascus (in Syria) and Egypt were the Via Maris , or Way of the Sea, which followed the coast, and the King’s Highway along the Transjordan Plateau east of the Jordan River. To the south is the land of Egypt with the Nile River. Significant archaeological discoveries from Egypt, such as the Rosetta Stone also provide helpful information for biblical interpretation. Geography of Palestine- The book moves from the broad view of the Old Testament world to a slightly more detailed account of the world of Palestine, because most of the Old Testament narratives take place in this land. The coastal plain begins in the south with the broad Plain of Philistia, named after the seafarers who settled there. The second major geographical division is the central hill country. The third division is the Jordan Rift. The final division is the Transjordan Plateau. These geographical features have significance for our reading of the Scriptures. They are reflected in the texts. They also show that in ancient Israel hopes for unity and cooperation would not be easy with the diversity of geography and topography. The cultures of Mesopotamia and Egypt and of the Canaanites set the background for the Old Testament; for example, ancient Israel’s paradigmatic story, the exodus, centers on time spent in Egypt. Most of the cultures were polytheistic (worshiping multiple deities), though there were some exceptions. In this context, the distinctiveness of the faith revealed in the Hebrew Scriptures is remarkable.
Archaeology Archaeologists are those who study the material remains of ancient cultures such as pottery, animal bones, remains of buildings, or written texts. The need for natural resources, especially water, limited the sites that were settled so many settlements were built on top of each other. Archaeological evidence does not in itself solve questions for understanding biblical texts, but when interpreted carefully, archaeological remains can provide vital information to assist readers. The goal of archaeologists is neither to prove nor to disprove anything about the Bible and historicity. It is rather to provide as much information as possible for reconstructing the lives of ancient peoples in the context from which the Bible originated. SIGNIFICANT ARCHAEOLOGICAL FINDS The Rosetta Stone. This inscription on black granite, discovered around 1800, made it possible to translate many previously undecipherable Egyptian inscriptions. The Gilgamesh Epic. An ancient Assyrian library in Nineveh, discovered in the middle of the nineteenth century, included a number of clay tablets. The Ugaritic Materials. Beginning in the late 1920s, archaeologists discovered clay tablets from the ancient city of Ugarit in Syria. These texts provide much information about Canaanite religion, often opposed by Hebrew prophets. The Mari Tablets. These texts come from Mari, a capital city in northern Mesopotamia on the Euphrates River. The Dead Sea Scrolls. These texts were discovered in the mid-twentieth century in caves near the Dead Sea. Genesis Name- Hebrew: Bereshit (first word in the book) Greek: Genesis (“origin” or “birth”) Authorship- We have no clue In the Greco-Roman period (ca2nd century BCE-2nd century CE) a tradition arose that the torah Moses wrote was the Torah, understood as the first five books of the Bible Composition- Likely began as a collection of oral tradition Written down either as a royal mandate or response to a crisis Primeval History The first division of the Hebrew canon is the Pentateuch , the first five books of the Old Testament.
3:22-23 - “The Lord God said,’ See, the man has become like one of us, knowing good and evil: and now, he might reach out his hand and take also from the tree of life, and eat, and live forever’- therefore the Lord God sent. Genesis 4- Cain and Abel Transgreession- murder Punishment- Banishment The Flood Transgression - “every inclination of the thoughts of their hearts was only evil continually” Punishment Competition of the Pentateuch Genesis 4– Genesis 1–11 also contains two types of materials: narratives and genealogies. The four narratives in these chapters are the garden of Eden (Gen. 2–3), Cain and Abel (Gen. 4), Noah and the flood (Gen. 6–9), and the tower of Babel (Gen. 11). General description of stories:
- The garden of Eden
- Genesis 4 recounts the story of Cain and Abel, two sons of Adam and Eve. Cain becomes enraged that God accepts the sacrifice of Abel, and he kills his brother. The text associates this violent act with sin. God gives Cain a mark of protection. The mark of protection suggests that God will serve as the next of kin for Cain.
- Genesis 6–9 brings the familiar story of Noah and the flood. Following the flood, God renews the creation with the promise (and the sign of the rainbow) that God will not again “destroy every living creature”
- The primeval history’s concluding narrative is the story of the tower of Babel in Genesis 11. The story likely originated as an etiology, an explanation of a current reality by narrating its origins. The story explains the presence of many nations and languages; it also explains the name of the place Babel as related to the Hebrew verb meaning “to confuse.” The story also reflects Babylonian culture, and the tower likely connotes Babylonian structures called ziggurats. In the primeval history this story shows the movement of ongoing human rebellion against God. Each story narrates disobedience against God and consequences that follow, as noted in the chart above; the stories focus on sin and punishment. They show growing power of sin in the world; the human problem is at base a problem of relationship with the divine that works out in human relationships. They end with an act of divine grace or kindness. The countertheme to the growing power of sin is the (almost secret) growing power of grace in the world.
Where is the sign of hope in the Tower of Babel story? Where is the sign of grace or hope? A number of interpreters have suggested that the sign is in the call of Abram. Genealogies The genealogies are the lists of generations found in Genesis 5, 10, and 11. These texts reflect the ancient Near Eastern culture of their origins, and yet they seem to have a different character than other biblical texts. Perhaps it is helpful to label the primeval history as universal history. Ancestral Stories The genealogy in Genesis 11 leads to the family of Abram and Sarai, whose story begins the second major division of the book of Genesis, the ancestral narratives in Genesis 12–50. Although the matter is debated, the Bronze Age —is when they believe the story took place. The Context in Genesis Genesis 12–50 recounts narratives from four generations: Abraham and Sarah Genesis 12– Isaac and Rebekah Genesis 24; 26 Jacob, Rachel, and Leah Genesis 25–36; Joseph Generation Genesis 37– The primeval history narratives recounted the beginnings of the human adventure and revealed continuing human fallibility. This becomes the answer to the question of the place of divine grace following the scattering and confusion of languages in the story of the tower of Babel. Grace is fulfilled in the covenant with Abram. God makes three promises: to make Abram a great people, to provide blessing, and to make Abram’s name great in order to bring blessing to “all the families of the earth.” Abram then receives this divine call that includes the ancestral covenant promise and initiates the ancestral journey of blessing. a promise that is often expressed in terms of descendants, land, and blessing. There is also a countertheme, that of threat to this ancestral covenant promise; the question driving the narratives is whether the blessing will come to fruition. Some of the threats are as follows: Danger #1: Strangers in a strange land (Ch 12, 20) They have no legal rights, nor are they an established part of the community, so Abram passes Sarai oss as his sister to protect himself. Danger #2: Infertility (chs. 15-18) The issue of children was primarily an issue of inheritance Connection to a family was only meant for economic and legal security.
his families. Rebekah steals her father’s household gods (Genesis 31 labels the small idols as terapphim .) The journey back to Canaan and reuniting with his twin, Esau. Etc. These narratives again demonstrate the diversity of materials in the ancestral stories and the presence in the narratives of cultural customs of the era. Joseph Generation Joseph and His Brothers Novella- Human interactions, almost always take place with exile Diaspora Literature- Scattered around Danger: Resolved somewhat in the 12 sons of Jacob Renewed in the famine and the threat from Jacob The story of the Joseph generation in Genesis 37–50 is somewhat different from the preceding ancestral narratives. This section is more of a self-contained unit. The previous sections of Genesis recount divine appearances to the patriarchs and matriarchs, but now God seems to communicate by way of the natural processes of life. Joseph is a wisdom character who interprets dreams and perceives the way forward for the future of the divine promise. By way of his interpretation of dreams, he is introduced in the pharaoh’s court. Jacob comes to the end of his life and passes on the promise to Joseph’s children. The book of Genesis ends with the death of Joseph. As noted above, some scholars have suggested that Joseph is a wisdom character who follows the basics of wisdom as preserved in the book of Proverbs. In that sense, Joseph is a teaching character for the young in ancient Israel. The focus of the narrative in the Joseph generation is on threats to the promise: famine, sibling rivalry, and other conflicts. The promise is not repeated until the end of the Joseph story, because Jacob is still alive to bear it. Conclusion In the end, Genesis 12–50 portrays the God of ancient Israel as one who makes and keeps promises and in so doing brings a faith community to fullness of life. Genesis narrates a script for the faith community as it recounts the memory of God’s involvement with this community. The first five books of the Old Testament are called the Pentateuch or Torah. The Books of Moses Tradition has tied the first five books of the Bible to Moses, and that tradition has been interpreted in some circles to suggest Mosaic authorship. These books pass on the faith centered on the Mosaic covenant, but they nowhere explicitly claim Mosaic authorship. They are
anonymous. There are indications in the text of these books that writers have recounted the past from a later time and perspective. Note: Much of the perspective of the Pentateuch is from those who are already living in Jerusalem at a later time. Something to note about these books is that there are two creation accounts in Genesis 1–2 and the differences in parts of the account of Noah and the flood—in chapter 6, the instruction is to take two of every living thing onto the ark; in chapter 7, the instruction is to take seven pairs of clean animals and one pair of unclean animals. In addition, Genesis 15 and 17 articulate two Abrahamic covenant traditions of a rather different character; and the narrative of the Joseph generation appears to be a self-contained unit. A good bit of evidence that the first five books of the Bible came about by way of a process of composition over a period of time. Documentary Hypothesis In the 1700s, readers of the Pentateuch began to notice that some stories were told twice, and sometimes with different information. The view that came to dominate the discussion is called the Documentary Hypothesis , the theory that the Pentateuch developed from the combination of several documents. Gen 7:17 - “The flood continued forty days on the earth….” Gen 7:24- “And the waters swelled on the earth for one hundred and fifty days” They began to identify “voices” in the text: Jahwist-Ancient, folk traditions, with an anthropomorphic God and colorful narratives Elohist- Also ancient, but from a different region of Palestine, harder to find in the narrative Deuteronomist- The author of Deuteronomy, which seems to be stylistically and the logically distinct from the rest of the Pantateuch Priestly- Later source, concerned with ritual law and cosmic order Redaction criticism also becomes part of the picture as the sources are edited together. Some scholars suggest that the formation process was less mechanical and so, rather than talking about sources or documents, talk about the process in terms of traditions or memories coming together, an example of what was labeled “ tradition history ” The other current question is whether the Priestly theologians or the Deuteronomists gave the Pentateuch its final form. Consider the following possibility. In the aftermath of the fall of Jerusalem in the sixth century BCE and the Babylonian captivity, Jewish scribes sought to preserve the historical and theological traditions of their community. One prominent view is that the priestly scribal community was the first to connect the ancestral stories in Genesis with the Moses story in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers. Their emphasis was on the covenant traditions such as those in Deuteronomy. It was the combination of the work of these two scribal
During this same time, there are records of nomadic peoples throughout the ancient Near East known as the Habiru/’Apiru The name Habiru is closely related to the word Hebrew , and, like “Hebrew” Designates a social category One of these groups of Habiru were called the “Shasu of YHW,” a pastoralist people form the Arabian Peninsula who worshiped a dety with a name YHW Clues form within the text Places names are accurate ( Pi-Rameses, Pithom) There is evidence that Habiru workers helped build Pi-Ramesses Moses is undeniable and Egyptian name Corroborated elsewhere in the Bible, form some of the earliest text we have available There seems to be some memory of Semtitc people living and laboring in Egypt, and than being delivered from Egyptian control. Moses’ birth Parallels with the ark narrative Parallels with Sargon of Akkad “My high priestess mother conceived me, in secret she bore me. She set me in a basket of rushes, with bitumen she sealed my lid.” Confrontation with Pharaoh Confronts the Egyptian pantheon Pattern of three sets of three plagues, culminating in the final plague. Passover narrative Hardening of Pharaoh's Heart The Sinai event Decalogue (10 Comandments) Apodictic Law is given on the authority of the lawgiver and is a basic, universal statement; most of the Ten Commandments fit this description The orderings are different along traditions 9cf. NOAB p111) Covenant Code Casuistic Law is case law applying basic principles to various contexts in the community’s life and usually in the form of “If this thing happens, then this consequence follows.” Similar to virtually all ancient Near Eastern Law codes Purpose was to serve as the model for questions of justice This law code expands the basic statements of the Decalogue and applies them to daily life. Law of Hammurabi- Babylonian law codes The book of Genesis began with the creation of the world; Exodus begins with the creation of the people of God and moves toward the fulfillment of the ancestral covenant promise.
The plagues YHWH sends attack the Egyptian pantheon. For example: The turning of the water of the Nile River to blood bests the god of the Nile. The plagues of the frogs and of lice and flies defeat the insect deities. The death of cattle challenges Hathor. The solar deity Ra fails to prevent darkness. The final, overpowering plague of the death of the firstborn Egyptians defeats the creator god Ptah and leads to the tradition of the Hebrew festival of Passover. YHWH sends a total of ten plagues: The account of the plagues is organized in series of threes. The first, fourth, and seventh plagues begin at the Nile River with the pharaoh present. Plagues two, five, and eight are narrated at the palace with the pharaoh present; and plagues three, six, and nine begin with a gesture and no warning. Moses leads the Hebrews away from Egypt but toward the sea (traditionally labeled the Red Sea but more accurately translated as “the sea characterized by reeds/vegetation”). Some have attempted to date the exodus from Egypt in the fifteenth century BCE, but the consensus among scholars is that the events likely come in the thirteenth century BCE during the time of Pharaoh Ramesses II. what we know of Egyptian history from that time suggest the thirteenth century. The first extrabiblical mention of Israel comes from that time period in a victory stele (a monument) erected by Pharaoh Merenptah. that piece of evidence would place the liberation from Egypt in the reign of Ramesses II (mid-thirteenth century BCE) and the oppression of the Hebrews in the reign of Seti I. Covenant at Sinai The liberation from Egypt eventually leads to the defining theophany in the Hebrew Scriptures, the encounter of YHWH with Israel at Mount Sinai leading to a covenant relationship. From Sinai, YHWH reveals the shape of life for this community. Exodus 20 presents the familiar Ten Commandments , or the Decalogue, the “ten words” central to the shape of Old Testament faith. The instructions are in the context of divine self-revelation. This law code articulates a vision of life for a people in covenant relationship with YHWH. The Covenant Code follows the Decalogue in Exodus 20:22–23:19. This law code expands the basic statements of the Decalogue and applies them to daily life. Following this law code, YHWH and Israel formally enter into a covenant relationship. The two types of law—apodictic and casuistic Apodictic law is given on the authority of the lawgiver and is a basic, universal statement; most of the Ten Commandments fit this description. Casuistic law is case law applying basic principles to various contexts in the community’s life and usually in the form of “If this thing happens, then this consequence follows.”
The Manual of Sacrifice presents the ritual for five sacrifices for both laity and priests:
- Whole burnt offering dedicating one’s whole life to YHWH, an atoning sacrifice
- Cereal offering suggesting that everyday life is from YHWH
- Shared offering in which YHWH and worshipers share the sacrificial meal
- Purification offering bringing cleansing from sin and uncleanness Compensation/reparation offering making amends for guilt Sacrifice is understood in the text to be a genuine act of faith in a variety of ways. At times the sacrifice is an act of communion between deity and the covenant community. At other times it is indicating thanksgiving for life provisions. Other sacrifices center on atonement, putting back “at one” a fractured relationship with the deity. The Manual of Purity The first ten chapters of Leviticus institute worship; the remainder of the book speaks to preparation for that worship. The definition of purity in terms of clean and unclean is important. Clean suggests a state acceptable for worship; unclean suggests what is unacceptable for worship. Uncleanness is contagious, and encountering the unclean ostracizes one from the central community act. The ritual of the Day of Atonement follows in Leviticus 16 and fits with the Manual of Purity because it has to do with the cleansing of impurity. Two goat sacrifice- The second goat is labeled the scapegoat. The priest confesses the sin of the people over the goat, and it is taken away from the community. Priestly view is that sin and uncleanness can fracture the relationship; the atonement rituals provide a means of restoring and renewing the relationship for the life of the community. The Holiness Code These last chapters in Leviticus instruct the community in how to reflect the holiness of YHWH in their worship and community life, again with a view to preparation for worship in the tabernacle. The Holiness Code calls the community to live in a distinct (holy) way. Holiness is not a way to separate from the world but a way to relate to the world. Leviticus 18 illustrates with the introduction and conclusion urging the community to live as covenant people of YHWH rather than as the Egyptians or Canaanites. Worship includes both regular worship (Lev. 24:1–9) and the special feasts:
- Spring—Passover and Unleavened Bread
- Summer—Festival of Weeks and Pentecost
- Fall—New Year, Feast of Tabernacles, Day of Atonement The festivals reflect the pattern of harvest, but also attention to the faith of ancient Israel with the memory of Passover (Exod. 12), the giving of the law codes (Pentecost), and the wilderness experience in tabernacles.
The divine presence with the covenant community provides the center for the book of Leviticus. Because this deity is perfectly holy (distinct), it is imperative that the community embody that holiness; The Book of Numbers The Book Of Numbers Structure o Chs. 1-10- A continuation of the regulations given on Mt. Sinia o CHs. 11-36 - Narratives o Chs.11-25- From Sinai to the Transjordan o Cjs. 13-14- Failed espionage episode o Chs. 26- The Second Census The book of Numbers is named for the “numbering” of the people with which it begins; The narrative action of the book occurs in three places: Sinai in chapters 1–10, the wilderness in chapters 10–20, and the Transjordan for the remainder of the action. The book exhibits two primary themes. The first is the right ordering of life as the covenant people of YHWH. and the first ten chapters of Numbers. The tabernacle as the community’s central, movable sanctuary is at the heart of that organization. In the most holy place of the tabernacle stood the ark of the covenant , a container for the Decalogue and the most important visible symbol of the divine presence with the community. YHWH was understood to be invisibly enthroned above the ark with its winged cherubs overlooking it. Those who cared for the tabernacle and its worship regalia were the Levites, a priestly clan. The second arena for that organization is the shape of the camp itself. Included in this organization of the community are the Nazirites , who are to embody the holiness of the community by following the vow of not cutting their hair, avoiding strong drink with its evil fermentation, and avoiding the uncleanness of corpses. The second primary theme of the book of Numbers is the wilderness rebellions. The theme of rebellion surfaces in the book of Numbers when the community breaks camp and departs from Sinai. These rebellions are all challenges to the authority of the covenant Lord YHWH, and they lead to prolonged wanderings in the wilderness. In the course of time, the wilderness generation dies and the “numbering” of a new generation comes to pass (Num. 26). Numbers 22–24 narrates the story of Balaam and illustrates some of the conflict the ancient Israelites endured during this journey. The account suggests that groups in the region have begun to fear Israel and their God YHWH. The Book of Deuteronomy The Book of Deuteronomy Name
