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Biolooy: bs the study of Ife “bios = life losy' > study of ls Ile exrgts fa form of organisms — Plants - Animals | Mia scopic brennisms ~baclerie lichen + fensi > prelere alone © Orange ase dessities based on Claleiby ~Onicellular /mulli Cellular orgenisms (owe ct) Loenicellular orgenisms Carry out atl activities nessary For \ile (single 7 rdtoe Orgarism™s aclibibes of ihe ove divided belween mony other Spe: zed cells Cell theory : d of one more Cells ly Nlorganisms ave compose: : _ —_ cell 1s dhe basic Strackura | £ foundamental unit of all lung Organisms ty Cells arise only trom the division of prezxisting cells Universal Features Us All cells have the Plasme membrane, ONA, Ribosomes Share Core ackuibies, Le Contain ONAL RNR, Which carry heredsbary in formation & direch the menut aclure OF cellular motecales = Plasma membrane: bilayer made of Phos pholip!s moleentes with embedsed protein molecates ls seleckive permeability -> Controls the Flow of Substences intof out of the Cell Heid bil ie hee abl ston: Ls dro phobic Barrier: Lptd bilayer 1s « hydro phobic barrier to weber Soluble Subshances Usiseagek Plechornisen: eletlve irertspar, aole’ Selabie melecaes Lions penetrate Celmembones Weesh Secatted ecnpert Profen chennele ee eotecelest sonler txn enber/ enue twesgh the ligt] bilayer / via Woes orb poteias ~Genehic Makertal: contarn ONA GANA -> Cory here diary information & divect the manufacture of Cellular molecules Ribosomes: All ving celle contain ribosomes. be composed oF ribesomel Ans (rflths) & proteins Lr veme os the rite of Protein synthesis => decoding Ihe messaged Forming peptide bonds = Cyle plasm f cytosol : Allcells have a DNA-contaming Central repion thal is Surrounded by cy boflaser Ls cytoplasm : describes allmaterial within a fakteryoh Cell enclosed by Ihe Plasma. membrone except for the cell nucleus Ly cytosol : O4¢seous porlton of the ¢cyloplosem ~> conter ng Waker, diescloed fons » Verious orsanie molecules tyboskelebon: Present iaall Uving, cell: prokaryotic cells the cytoskeleton help maintain Cell shape & Fanchion in cell division Ly Bukaryotic Cells - the cy fosKeleton matalains Cell shape fflays key roles in Cell dsutsion f Chromosome Seoregation Diversity £ teclure Ly prokaryolte Celle: lack a nucleus % a0 internal Compost mentalt zation Ly Eukaryolic cells: have a nucleus f internal membrone- bound organelles Cell Class: f:ealion } Nuch. Lach co Ninclus Hove oo Aisclints | Laterol oveeiaiieal Hove 10 internal Comfarhmentatzalion aus inonal eembaacbaaboranslis | enveie?) ii . Tn the culodlaaes Vice cathe ite! tched 0 erenbnae Prokoryo tic Stachure’ Chromosome: DNA i¢ lypic ally @ Single, Cirtulor molecnlt Extra Chromosomal DNA: Some Cells Contain Plasmids -> Civcles of DNA that replicote independently fon Contam genetic material relating 10 Ly Pathogenicity, tumor formation, & resistence to chemicals > onitbrobies & Plosmids Con easily p03 fram one cell 10 onoher Plas me membrane: Contains molec lor sysienj mebeboize foal motecules (Ilishteneray) into the chemical enersy of RIP EAernal Sbachare Molility: many move ung long flagella —>rolate to push the cell LsHasrlike pili oHach to the cell to Sur faces Solher cells for adhesvn o> tnvoloed in bac berial making ‘oid eebernal Cell wall Coated with poly seccharides —> itleose , isa Slime layer rik Firmly attached, its o Copsule Eukeryolic Shruackres Ly system of membranous organelles +> Corry out fanchont of eneroy melabolismt molecular synthesis, sloraoe jftronspert Nucleus: Contezns most of the Cells DNA -> most Conspicuors oreonell > Protected by the nuclear envelope (40 lipid biloyer membranes) containing Nucle-r pores CProtein-| Ls Nucleolus: participates in assembling the ribosomes \ined connel* —> requiake moleculOr Ironsfortalion) (Dk rdomembrane sytem: Comples Syston > Components Cruclear eneudes, Bry Qala! opparais,lysosorcs, vocusle>, Plusmo wymbrne)>cankinures / Connected vie Hanster by vesicles, = Com portmentaltzation: The endomembrore system serves a Crucial role by duiding the cyloplasm into funcional £ Structural compartments the com ponents a the endomembrane System ove either Conkinuous /Gonnected through Wenste- by vesicles = Wesicles !shuclures potedted by a membrane layer, Cansisling of liga /eyloplasmrst ave abasic feo! used by the Cell for orgenizing clluer Substances Gouesicles form naturally during processes ike Sere Hon exocyto%s), uplake Lendo cy}05's), ond malesal trans pert within the Plasma membrone LEndoplosmic Recticulum Accounts for more tan halfot thy lolol membrane ia mony eukaryotic cells ~Romgh ER Lotte ribosomes ): modifies /folds proteins & 4 & membrane Fachoy ~ Smooth EALlacks ribosomes): Synthesizes lipids, shores Colcinmrdelorities bonns/drmps, ¢ reeulates carbohydmmbe metabolism Colgi Apporabus: shinning & receiving CenterTk modiies products ot hy ER, manu Ly Conese of flattened membranous Sace Called cisternae. -Qelg; has feo diskinct faces Lr ere face 1s the “receving! aide of the Qo’ opparalus Vesicles move from he EA 10 the Qolp: and vesicles cntesce here to farm new crs ape) ciekernae Ly trans Face ° the “thipping!"ide,-> vesicles farm & leave Ih gela’, Carrying spucit froteing fo olker destinations /40 the Plasma membrane for Secretion fockures macromolecules, & Sorts & pockages materials into transport vesicles ~Cisternal Maturalion Le invobes the Qolgj Cisternae moving in & Cis-te- frans diveckion ~vewel Heansport carlin proteing backward Wonastr eplei cisternae ue c Rear estes polecs vecetved kan the ERimanntactunes Cerlain macro melceaies £ Sorle € packages maherals inlo tans par vesicles Lyso Somes: Mem branous Sacs of hydrolykic. enzymes Ls crucial For Pho.gody 105%5 lensultng lovye Particles) 4 Auto pha DY (recycling, damaged organelice ond mocromoleauutes) Composition & the Bilayer Lo the PM isthe boundary thatseparales the living cell mm 1's non ling surreund ings Ly All cells ove Surrounded by the PM LSPM is & bilayer made OF Phospholie'd molecules with embedded protein moleantes Ly Prospholiprds one the most obundant lipid in the PM.—> amphipathic moleosles Us they Contain both hy drophob:e and hydrophilic regions Lo Upid bilayer 7 & hydro phobe barrier lo waler touble substonces Fluid mosaic Model: Singer & Nicolson in 172 sFliidily* Pospholipids £ mosh leds & come Protens dettt laterally within the bilover Ur ronely does o molecule Sip-Hep trana versely 6/036 the membrane amin brenes mut be Fluid to work properly slenp ot ubiche membrane Solidities depends on the types of liftde. bs mem branes rich in tn saturated foHy acids ave more Huts ton ote rich tn ‘saharted Faby cxcids Urthe enzyme desmtornse calelyte the fevmation of double bonds in the falty octd hasle Bole oF Cholesterol (on imal cel)? thy Steriod Cholesterol Plays proket roles in maintaining the huchural ibepriby f resulating the Racdihy of Cel membranes Ls ab warm heme; 31 matntas ne Fleidity by preventing Hehk packing Membrore Proteins % their funckons — 1 (rotting determine most of the membrane’ Specie luncheons. Amembrane i 0 collage of Jterent proteins embedded in the Quid materia obthe lipid bilayer: ealegral proteins : penetrate he hydrophobic cove & often spon the mam brane; these thal span the membane are called transmembrane Proteins Peripheral proteins Len bintic membrane Proteins) ave rot embedded 314 maior anchors of membrane protems: bmnsport, Endymalic ochuily, sina! fronsduckion, Cell -Cell recognition. inbercellular Spining, & oHochmenh to tre erloskelelon t edecelular mabeie, "Wilt perme stare ome dubslercet lo 7098 sk mone easily than ches. the Sebuive bm npoct of ive G water ~toluble molecules maintains the Specioltzed eternal iaviremenbs regniced For cobsier Ite Ls passive benaport, Achut renspert, & bulk breaspert = Passive kenspork mous Subslenies down thie Concenkalion gradient Lregsies no enetoy trom We Cell cOilbesion: the Vendenoy for moleentes 10 Spcerd out evenly inte the aueilaiie Space unlth a dynamis egetlibrinn is reched: Ly the diffusion Of a Substance atrome biclegtal mem brane is peseve transport = Osmosis: this is the diffusion of Waler ocrows & Seleclively Permeable monbrane Stosmesie fo determined only by a ditteence in tOlal tolube concentration. weber d:ltumes tom the reoion of user Solute concentralion to the region of higher sohsh¢ Concentrolion he Obrlty oF @ soluton to couse a cell lo Q8in or lose woler clypertonie sotaion : cell loses water end oppenrs shiver d Conimal celt)er plasmolice dC Plonteel) [hypotonic tliton cell gains waler and cpmeors stl = Trolenie Solukon 1 SOI € contentralion i the some inside outs ronet water mosement organisms wid rigid cell Walle musk ume oSmoregulation to control water balance im enviromints thal are hyper lonie Ihypo tent slated Orffusiont Imaspork poleins spted mostment of molecules across the PA down ty loncentration gradient Us channel Proteins: Provide Corridars fer e specific molecule or ion bo Cross bearer proteins: unde 90 0 Subkle Change in shape tat ranslecohes the soluke-binding ite ceross the membrane mhekive Harsporl! reprise entray,, use ally cn the Lonm of ATP, lo move Subslences against the'r Cmcenbvalion grmdient the important eclive Kars port Sy Shem fn ental celle Ls primary (ved Relive beetpert treray derived dveclthy Crom the break down Of RiP -the Sod \um—pobaraiven Pump to OM 2 porto shee PhosPhory [alton by ATP Coubes the protein to chonge it’s confo/melion, expell:nd Ney & allowing KY binding we beconbary Uinkicect| Rekve tensperk (cobrans pert: oxcturs when achive bmespert of one Golule indirectly drives bans pork of orciher Solute » Uses on chechochemicel gradient Created by Primary achive Wansport €0: Plants Commonly use the evadient of hydrasen ions Ht generated by proton pumps lodnve the acluc bans pork of mubvients (like Sucre inte the cell = bron porter Classes ! Ackve bons post : Performed by specitic enbedded probeins classified a! Ly uni porter: moves ong molemle ofress the membrane Le sympories! moves two molecules in the same direction Ls ankiporter: moves tuo moleceles in the opposite dveckion Bulk transport! large molecules, Such as poly saccherides & proteins, C705 the membranc Hmsh Vesitle~mediated Yonspork-(achve process) _, ond Felease their Contents.Many Secrebory Cells use th's Ly Brocy tosis! Rohe Process of moving wuberinls From ssithin e cell lo the exterior Trans fort vesicles migmbe be the memb mrt Fuse wi Process bo eaport their Products ( insulin release] Ls Badocy fess Rekive celular press inushzh Subslonces ove brenght ino the cell by Forming Vesicles bom th patra manbrane Erdouoss ino reversol ot cxocyons,mudving Henat poheins the Gall ena 0 laroe far Hele ine vocule *Protyio4'slalllar drinking) Extn callalor fluids Smad orkcls are sm geshed Receptor ~medtebed enlociios's! binding oflisands bo sp ecitie reveplers biegers vesicle Farmakion The Celt Cycle Ly Series of events that fake Place ine cell that comses ## lo die Prokoryotes Cell cycle (Binoy Fission) Ls Becletat, Archoe , Celt deviston occurs though binary frssion Ls the Pokanotie. cell cycle ‘nvolves Coordinabed cytoplasmic Srowth, DNA replication, and cel division Ly Repitcnb:on besing abo Single site Colled the Onpin of repicalion (Ovi) Ly Repeated chromosomes ove dishi bubed odively bo thy doushler Cells. once $heO-! duplicated, the lwo origins ockudy misyate bo the endsof the cell Ly the cycle 2 duided into three stages: B periodlend of dioision lo besehning of re Atal on), Period (chromesome replicelion|,£, 1 Poiod (comple bion Of replication to Completion of the cell cxcle) Lsil ig beloved thal He onueshal division Process wee binary fission, £, milosis evolve b bom hel process Eukoyotic Celtcycle Ly the eukaryotic cell Cxcle ismon Complex ond consists of four disknch Phases; bl Phase, % PhaseLoynthesio), G2 Phase (these thiee avecoltect vely Known an iaterPhase LEM Phase (mitosis 6 cvlokn 6's) ie flase: extends trom ti end obone miles ote beining ote nea oe Cell Carries oct Ms fancier ro TSpheseiONA repeakon & theomesore loptcation tur: Replicakiono CachindWileal Choretone Crake stoe idenlenl electes Called S:2herthenotids eG phasse: Cell orouth Conkinues fe cell Prepares for nthesie ¢ cxloKiness ~60 phase (quienscence)’ Resting Phase where thecell has Lele the cycle and hes Slomed €u Koryottc Cellnuc lens S00hs into kao = pal The ool of milesis on chromosome See resetion— Fhe eget distribution of douohity Chromosomes into each ofthe kwodmahter Cells. ~ Mechanism: se reqation i ochiaed hy the spindle oparatus, co cyloskelefal Shucture Composed largely of microlubuless = Stages: Milosis has Five shapes) Prophase, prometa Phase, meluphase, Rnaphase, & telophase sProphase: Chromosomes Condense inlo Compact, rodithe Struckwes thal become Visible The Centrosome had duibed Anko hwo Parts Limoves loweeds opfonity poles sPromelaghase: the nuclear enwelope Doreaks dovon. Microfebules aHackelo the Kine lochores | prolin ansamblies thet Comet chromosomes bo mitrehabules) of cach chromosome cneloghass: the Spindle 1 buy formed, kehromono=ss alton atthe spindle midpoint melogeee Hal] sPraphane! Sepomse Cleaves the Cohesion ring holding Sister chromatids logether. The Spindle seporates sister chremalids & moves them fo offosite poles «Chromosome Segregation it complete *Telophase: Chromosome’ decordlerie & new nuclear envelope form ound chromosonts,and the evboplasm begins fo divide by furrovoing, etylo ments: This 1s the physical Process that divides the cytoplasm into hwo daughter cells = Onimel cell. CylokineSis omootes the Commotion of e Cleavage facoes sels kee drmsoehe ~ponk celis:veniles Geom He Boley apres conlese ete forse cel Bake ce ten bncn aoe ek wall belween the Ho daahter cel's ~ Outtame 1 miboris conserves He umber oF chromosomes Sths (an-> tn) produtira Cll thak ove Sunchicatly idendiost fo the Parenboatt Meiokic Celt du:eron(meiess) Ly the Process Sesually= nepreduting orgenisens ibe fo Create gomches toith ball fhe regained qenche maberal Sexual reproduction requires the Fark zeion even whee feo haploid (in\ gametes verte fo Crone diploid lanl cet Called o Zre0he ~ Qoal’ meiosis reduces the umber Of chromosome Schs Crom | ip ler. id = preceded by taberphate Ike mihons yntvan tapraeil bree phens POSE ch Gvomosomes one reptictad te lorm iter chroma From the others ~culcome! Meiosis cnvlves fio acts cell dvWont Cmetoniay B metonta it),resuiling i Cour daugher CAI, each eaithe haplaid Sel of uarephialud chremosoms-Fach dough Cll is omeicallydrekind end From the Porent cel Meing:s I (Separate Romologout Chromosomes) = PhrophaseL + typically ecupies mere than 40% of the Here required Corrmeionrs, be. ‘homologous Chromosomes loosely Pairup, aligned gene by gene. This is aided by He Synaplontmal complen sanmate . . oe toenvater Chrromatids eéChange ONA Sep ments. This enelic recombination leads to novel forms. this Process Crtatesy chiasmata(# shaped PEQiO"S cohere Croseina over ceturred) 7 f a 30 i akds the paired homologons Chromosomes form a tetrad (or bivalent) consisting of four chrom ceamsh wx oot ooh ob rida Ped -Melophase T! bebrads ine up atthe melaphase Plate, with ont Chromosame facing each Pole: fared homolegens Chromosomes ae ~Anaphas 1! pairs of homobgms Chromosomes Separabe.One Chromosome move keword enth Pole, Quided by the Spindle opharalus.cisherChromalids remain oHached ab the centromere -Teloghase I 6 cutokines's’ two haploid doughler Cells form, but each Chvomosome Skill consists of two ihe Chomatids.No Chromosome repticohion (sphabe) ctturs behween meiosis T ond meiosis TE Metos:s IL: Ly separates sister Umomatidl ~melaphas TE: sister Chromalids oe arranged ot the metaphase plate Because of Crossing over inmeionisT the hoo sister Chromatids are nolonger genetically iderkionl ~ Mraphabe TL? The Sisher chromatids Seperate ond move o% fo newly individual Chromosomes loward opposite Poles ~ TeloPhase TLE cytokinesis! Mucle! form, and chromosones, decondense.lour haploid daughlir Cells result, Containing Single unreplicaked Chromosomes Events Unigue fo Meions *Sinaesis f rpss reve: prophase ICHamoloaeus chromosomes Physically connect We informal Tired homologous CrvomosamesCtebrads) align at mela phase Z Celene gens ” loxceme Chromese mes Seperate at ona Phase T Cintteed of sister Uvomalds) Microscopy Ly mosh Cells ave fo0 Snail lo be Seen by the naked eve = therelors scientists ube microscopes 10 Visualize Célly boo Small 10 See with the naked eve, Wo etechor meroscory Neat » Ze to Hs veal Lymapnitiation: rato oF the objets inwne sue 6s elie tmaaes: minimum Ststete al two Pins inthe 2pesimen Can be Sepomted & til be Seen On hoo prints. regolubion () J! this 150 measure of the Clearly oo i ee eeeciangih of laht elacbors Wed to untnele the spesimen Types OF Microscopy e@ light microse opes (UM); ube Boh to ‘Muuminale the Specimen Cbtering Soret Cell Raburest movement (Rel, Cyloplatmic Sreoming) Ly bright Fels microscopy, Dilt erential inter Fence Lonlast micerscopy (DIL), Fluorescence miroscany, f Contocal miumscony Electron micro scopes CEM; wee elechors fo tllarninete the Specimen; Provide muth higher resoliion necessary fer Vsualitaking inlenel omenelles Ly fransmitsion cledron meroscopy (TEI, £ Scenning electron microscopy LEM) 
