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Syntax
AP English Language and Composition
What is syntax?
SYNTAX
The term syntax refers not only to the structure of sentences, their types, their uses, their connection, and the variations authors choose, but also to smaller structures within sentences. Phrases (any group of words) and clauses (groups of words that contain a subject and a verb) are also syntactic elements that require a reader’s attention.
Syntax affects the pace of a piece. Short, clipped phrases, sentences and clauses tend to create a feeling of quickness, decisiveness, and speed to a piece. It is important to be aware of the content of a piece and look for connections to syntax. Pay attention to how pacing relates to the action and purpose of a particular piece. Long, convoluted sentences, especially with subordinate clauses at the beginning tend to slow the pace of a piece. Often they are connected to a contemplative section, a heavy or serious subject and the writer wants to emphasize it. Sometimes, however, they are placed in a piece for the purpose of demonstrating the ramblings of a character, the ludicrousness of an idea, or the ridiculousness of a situation. Watch for occasional satire or irony in these long sentences. Key Questions: How does syntax contribute to and enhance the meaning and effect of language? How does syntax contribute to tone?
- “Syntax” refers to the ways words and phrases are arranged to form sentences. The reader must identify an author’s syntax and discuss the relationship it has to the content of the passage. Authors may use: a. specific patterns of phrases and sentences b. divisions within a piece with different syntax for each c. parallel structure d. different sentence types e. specific kinds of punctuation f. other syntax techniques
- To begin studying syntax, follow the following steps: a. Number the sentences in the passage. This will help analyze each sentence and discuss it efficiently. b. Make observations about the content and syntax of each sentence or group of sentences. Look for elements listed above or others observed. i. Does the sentence length fit the subject matter? ii. Why is the sentence length effective? iii. What variety of sentence lengths is present? iv. Sentence beginnings – Variety or Pattern? v. Arrangement of ideas in sentences vi. Arrangement of ideas in paragraph – Pattern? c. Write down what is observed. These observations will be the paper’s examples.
Syntax-analysis Chart
Complete this chart for the BEST BODY paragraph. Then, on the back of the chart, draw conclusions about your writing (200 word minimum) using specific examples to support your analysis. First 4 words Verbs (write all verbs)
Special Features: imagery, periodic sentence, figurative language, etc.)
Transitions # of words
Sentence Structures
simple sentence contains one subject and one verb has only one main, complete thought The singer bowed to her adoring audience.
compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinate conjunction (and, but, or) or by a semicolon has two or more main, complete thoughts. Two or more simple sentences are joined, usually with or , but , or and. The singer bowed to the audience, but she sang no encores.
complex sentence has one simple sentence and one or more clauses. These clauses are connected to the simple sentence with words like because, while, when, if, as, although, since, unless, after, so, which, who, and that. contains an independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses After she bowed to the audience, the singer sang an encore.
compound-complex sentence a combination of the above contains two or more principal clauses and one or more subordinate clauses The singer bowed while the audience applauded, but she sang no encores.
Loose sentence makes complete sense if brought to a close before the actual ending We reached Edmonton/that morning/after a turbulent flight/and some exciting experiences. Periodic sentence makes sense only when the end of the sentence is reached That morning, after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, we reached Edmonton.
Balanced sentence the phrases and clauses balance each other by virtue of their likeness of structure, meaning, or length He maketh me to lie down in green pastures; he leadeth me beside the still waters
The Cumulative or Loose Sentence A cumulative or loose sentence is a type of parallel sentence which builds through parallel constructions (dependent phrases or clauses) after a main clause. Remember: in the cumulative sentence, the main clause (with the subject and verb) comes first.
Formula: Main clause + Parallel Dependent phrases or clauses
A loose or cumulative sentence is one in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent clauses and phrases; therefore, a loose sentence makes complete sense if brought to a close before the actual ending: e.g., “We reached Edmonton that morning after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, tired but still exhilarated, full of stories to tell our friends and neighbors.” The sentence could end before the modifying phrase without losing its coherence. Loose sentences are the most natural for English speakers, who almost always talk in loose sentences: even the most sophisticated English writers tend to use loose sentences much more often than periodic sentences.
The brilliant assembly filed past us, the marshals with their batons and ceremonial red hats, the professors draped in their doctoral hoods, the graduates in somber black that contrasted with their jubilant mood.
Nothing could deflect that wall of water, sweeping away trees and boulders, engulfing streets and villages, churning and roaring like a creature in pain.
Then I saw that the child had died, never more to enjoy getting into trouble with his friends, never again to tell innocent lies to his parents, never to look with hopeful shyness at a girl he desires.
Cumulative sentences add parallel elements at the end. These sentences are especially effective for description, even if they use only a single detail at the end.
The student sat quietly, trembling at the thought of writing an essay. [using a single detail]
The hounds continued to bray—uncontrollably, maddeningly, horribly. [using multiple details]
Famous Cumulative Sentence
George was coming down in the telemark position, kneeling, one leg forward and bent, the other trailing, his sticks hanging like some insect’s thin legs, kicking up puffs of snow, and finally the whole kneeling, trailing figure coming around in a beautiful right curve, crouching, the legs shot forward and back, the body leaning out against the swing, the sticks accenting the curve like points of light all in a cloud of snow.
[An example of a complex cumulative sentence from Hemingway’s In Our Time --quoted in Miles, Bertonasco and Karns, Prose Style : A contemporary Guide (1991)
The Balanced Sentence
A balanced sentence is a type of parallel sentence in which two parallel elements are set off against each other like equal weights on a scale. In reading the sentence aloud, one tends to pause between the balanced parts, each seeming equal. When writing a balanced sentence, be certain that both parts of the sentence have the clear parallels of form , that they appear parallel grammatically.
In a balanced sentence , the phrases or clauses balance each other by virtue of their likeness of structure, meaning, or length: e.g., “He maketh me lie down in green pastures; he leadeth me beside still waters.”
George Bernard Shaw said of writers: The ambition of the novice is to acquire the Literary Language; the struggle of the adept is to get rid of it. [Each part of the sentence follows the same pattern: subject, verb, infinitive phrase.]
Content of a Balanced Sentence Balanced sentences are particularly effective if you have an idea that has a contrast or antithesis. Balanced sentences can emphasize the contrast so that the rhetorical pattern reflects and supports the logical pattern.
No man has ever seen anything that Burne-Jones cannot paint, but many men have painted what Burne-Jones cannot see. (Shaw) And so my fellow Americans—ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country. (Kennedy)
If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich. (Kennedy)
It is not that today’s artists cannot paint, it is that today’s critics cannot see. (Rothko) Some of the above examples illustrate not only balanced sentences but also a device called “antimetabole,” in which the order of words is reversed in one of the parallel structures to produce a clever effect. The following are examples of antimetabole: When the going gets tough , the tough get going. You can take the gorilla out of the jungle , but you can't take the jungle out of the gorilla.
The Balanced Paragraph One can also develop an entire paragraph by balance. This is particularly useful if you are developing a series of contrasts.
I felt myself in rebellion against the Greek concept of justice. That concept excused Laius of attacking Oedipus, but condemned Oedipus for defending himself. It tolerated a king’s deliberate attempt to kill his baby son by piercing the infant’s feet and abandoning it on a mountain, but later branded the son’s unintentional killing of his father as murder. It held Oedipus responsible for his ignorance, but excused those who contributed to that ignorance. (Krutch)
Natural order of a sentence
involves constructing a sentence so the subject comes before the predicate Oranges grow in California. Inverted order of a sentence (sentence inversion)
involves constructing a sentence so the predicate comes before the subject (this is a device in which normal sentence patterns are reversed to create an emphatic or rhythmic effect) In California grow oranges. Split order of a sentence divides the predicate into two parts with the subject coming in the middle In California oranges grow.
Punctuation Ellipses a trailing off; equally etc.; going off into a dreamlike state Dash interruption of a thought; an interjection of a thought into another Semicolon parallel ideas; equal ideas; a piling up of detail Colon a list; a definition or explanation; a result Italics for emphasis Capitalization for emphasis Exclamation Point for emphasis; for emotion
