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The Different Biomolecules, Study notes of Biology

Biology

The notes cover information on polymers, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acid, the four foundational biomolecules.

Typology: Study notes

2025/2026

Available from 06/17/2026

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Study Bunny
⋆. ⌬ ˚ ⚛ ˚⋆
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⋆Biomolecules⋆
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⋆˚ ⚛ ˚ ⌬ ⋆.
COVERAGE
1. Polymers
2. Carbohydrates
3. Lipids
4. Proteins
5. Nucleic Acid
Section 1
Polymers
MACROMOLECULES
★ An umbrella term for biomolecules.
★ Another term for polymers. Polymers
are long molecules consisting of many
similar or identical building blocks
linked by covalent bonds
MONOMERS
★ Building blocks of a polymer.
★ Examples include glucose, amino acids,
and nucleotides
ENZYMES
★ Specialized macromolecules.
★ Helps in speeding up chemical
reactions and interactions between
molecules.
CONDENSATION REACTION
★ Two molecules become covalently
bonded through the loss of a small
molecule.
★ Lengthens a polymer.
DEHYDRATION REACTION
★ Refers to a condensation reaction in
which a water molecule was lost
during covalent bond formation.
HYDROLYSIS
★ Refers to the process of breaking
bonds between monomers through the
addition of a water molecule.
Section 2
Carbohydrates
CARBOHYDRATES
★ Composed of Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen.
★ Serves as the main energy source of
many organisms.
★ The building blocks of carbohydrates
are monosaccharides.
MONOSACCHARIDES
★ Building block of carbohydrates.
★ Most common monosaccharide.
★ Means single sugar.
★ Classifications of monosaccharides
○ Aldose - means aldehyde sugar.
The carbonyl group is at the end
of the carbon skeleton.
Examples include Ribose and
Glucose.
○ Ketose - means ketone sugar.
The carbonyl group is within the
carbon skeleton. Examples
include Ribulose and Fructose.
○ Triose - three-carbon sugars.
○ Pentose - five-carbon sugars.
○ Hexose - six-carbon sugars.
CONCEPT: ATOM ARRANGEMENT
A small difference is significant enough to
give the two sugars distinctive shapes and
binding activities, thus different behaviors.
DISACCHARIDE
★ Two monosaccharides joined together
through a dehydration reaction.
★ Examples of a disaccharide:
○ Maltose - used in beers
○ Sucrose - table sugar
○ Lactose - sugar found in milk
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COVERAGE

**1. Polymers

  1. Carbohydrates
  2. Lipids
  3. Proteins
  4. Nucleic Acid Section 1 Polymers MACROMOLECULES** ★ An umbrella term for biomolecules. ★ Another term for polymers. Polymers are long molecules consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds MONOMERS ★ Building blocks of a polymer. ★ Examples include glucose, amino acids, and nucleotides ENZYMES ★ Specialized macromolecules. ★ Helps in speeding up chemical reactions and interactions between molecules. CONDENSATION REACTION ★ Two molecules become covalently bonded through the loss of a small molecule. ★ Lengthens a polymer. DEHYDRATION REACTION ★ Refers to a condensation reaction in which a water molecule was lost during covalent bond formation. HYDROLYSIS ★ Refers to the process of breaking bonds between monomers through the addition of a water molecule. Section 2 Carbohydrates CARBOHYDRATES ★ Composed of Carbon , Hydrogen and Oxygen. ★ Serves as the main energy source of many organisms. ★ The building blocks of carbohydrates are monosaccharides. MONOSACCHARIDES ★ Building block of carbohydrates. ★ Most common monosaccharide. ★ Means single sugar. ★ Classifications of monosaccharides ○ Aldose - means aldehyde sugar. The carbonyl group is at the end of the carbon skeleton. Examples include Ribose and Glucose. ○ Ketose - means ketone sugar. The carbonyl group is within the carbon skeleton. Examples include Ribulose and Fructose. ○ Triose - three-carbon sugars. ○ Pentose - five-carbon sugars. ○ Hexose - six-carbon sugars. CONCEPT: ATOM ARRANGEMENT A small difference is significant enough to give the two sugars distinctive shapes and binding activities, thus different behaviors. DISACCHARIDE ★ Two monosaccharides joined together through a dehydration reaction. ★ Examples of a disaccharide: ○ Maltose - used in beers ○ Sucrose - table sugar ○ Lactose - sugar found in milk

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GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGE

★ The dehydration reaction responsible for the formation of disaccharides, polysaccharides and oligosaccharides. ★ Classification of glycosidic linkage: ○ α -linkage - The bonds point downward making sugars with this type of linkage digestible for humans (i.e., starch & glycogen). ○ β -linkage - the bonds point upward making sugars with this type of linkage difficult to digest (i.e., cellulose and lactose). POLYSACCHARIDES ★ Polymers with a few thousand monosaccharides formed by glycosidic linkages. ★ Classification of polysaccharides: ○ Storage Polysaccharides ■ Starch - stored sugar in plants. Potatoes, rice and corn are rich in starch. Amylose is the simplest form of starch and it is unbranched. Amylopectin is a more complex starch, and it is a branched polymer. ■ Glycogen - stored sugar in animals. Serves as a temporary energy source and is replenished by eating. ○ Structural Polysaccharides ■ Cellulose - a major component of plant walls that give structural integrity to plants. ■ Chitin - major component of the exoskeletons of arthropods. Present in crustaceans and insects.

OLIGOSACCHARIDES

★ Carbohydrates that contain 3 to 10 units of monosaccharides. ★ Found in broccoli, peas, and bananas. ★ Functions of oligosaccharides: ○ Prebiotics - oligosaccharides are indigestible by humans. When ingested, they travel to the intestine and serve as prebiotics or fuel for gut bacteria. ○ Cell Marker - oligosaccharides are often attached to lipids and proteins allowing easy identification. Examples include the determination of blood types and distinction between body cells and foreign viruses. Section 3 Lipids LIPIDS ★ Hydrophobic in nature ★ Has hydrocarbon regions with non-polar C-H bonds. ★ Has three main classifications: fats, phospholipids, and steroids. FATS ★ Consists of glycerol joined to three fatty acids. ★ Also called triacylglycerol and triglyceride. GLYCEROL ★ Alcohol. Each of its three hydrocarbons are joined with a hydroxyl group. FATTY ACID ★ Has 16-18 carbon atoms in its skeleton. ★ The carbon at one end of the skeleton is joined to a carboxyl group.

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PEPTIDE BOND

★ Bond between amino acids. ★ A polymer of amino acids is called polypeptide. AMINO ACIDS ★ Building blocks of proteins. ★ An organic molecule with an amino group and a carboxyl group. ★ The 20 amino acids which make up a protein:

  1. Glycine
  2. Alanine
  3. Valine
  4. Leucine
  5. Isoleucine
  6. Methionine
  7. Phenylalanine
  8. Tryptophan
  9. Proline
  10. Serine
    1. Threonine
    2. Cysteine
    3. Tyrosine
    4. Asparagine
    5. Glutamine
    6. Aspartic Acid
    7. Glutamic Acid
    8. Lysine
    9. Arginine
    10. Histidine PRIMARY PROTEIN STRUCTURE ★ Linear sequence of amino acids. ★ The specific order of amino acids in the chain is dictated by inherited genetic information from parent to offspring. ★ Dictates the secondary and tertiary structures. SECONDARY PROTEIN STRUCTURE ★ Regions stabilized by hydrogen bonds between atoms of the polypeptide backbone. ★ Coils and folds of a protein. ★ Classifications of secondary protein structure: ○ α helix - a delicate coil held together by hydrogen bonding between every fourth amino acid. ○ β pleated sheet - two or more segments of the polypeptide chain lying side by side are connected by hydrogen bonds between parts of the two parallel segments. TERTIARY STRUCTURE ★ Three dimensional shape stabilized by interactions between side chains. ★ Overall shape of a polypeptide as a result of the R group interactions. DISULFIDE BRIDGES ★ Strong covalent bonds which support a protein’s tertiary structure. QUATERNARY PROTEIN STRUCTURE ★ The joining of two or more polypeptides into one macromolecule. ★ Helps a protein structure suit its function. ★ Collagen for example, has three identical helical polypeptides joined into one, suiting collagen’s function as part of tendons and ligaments in the human body. CONCEPT: CHANGE IN PRIMARY STRUCTURE A small change in a protein’s primary structure can affect its ability to function. For example, the substitution of valine for glutamic acid at the position of the sixth amino acid in hemoglobin causes sickle cell disease, impeding blood flow. DENATURATION ★ The unfolding or unraveling of a protein due to environmental changes surrounding it. ★ A denatured protein is considered inactive and unable to complete its predetermined biological function.

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Section 5 Nucleic Acid NUCLEIC ACID ★ Also called polynucleotides. ★ A class of compounds which includes genes that contain DNA. ★ These are polymers made up of monomers called nucleotides. DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID ★ Also called DNA. Has deoxyribose. ★ Holds the blueprint for primary protein structure. ★ Inherited genetic material from parent to offspring. RIBONUCLEIC ACID ★ Also called RNA. Has ribose. ★ Builds the protein based on the blueprint provided by DNA. ★ The messenger that translates the genetic instructions in DNA into the primary protein structure. NUCLEOTIDES ★ Composed of pentose, a nitrogenous base and 1-3 phosphate groups. ★ A part of a nucleotide without any phosphate group is called a nucleoside. PYRIMIDINE ★ A family of nitrogenous bases for nucleotides. ★ Has one six-membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms. ★ Includes Cytosine , Thymine , and Uracil. PURINE ★ A family of nitrogenous bases for nucleotides. ★ Has one six-membered ring of pyrimidine fused to a five-membered ring of imidazole. ★ Includes Adenine and Guanine. PHOSPHODIESTER BOND ★ The main bond which connects nucleotides to form nucleic acid. SUGAR-PHOSPHATE BACKBONE ★ Repeating pattern of sugar-phosphate units as a result of phosphodiester bond formation. DOUBLE HELIX ★ The winding of two polynucleotides around an imaginary axis. ★ DNA structure. ★ The two strands of a double helix are complementary. CONCEPT: COMPLEMENTARY HELIXES In base pairing, only certain bases in the double helix are compatible with each other. Adenine (A) always pairs with thymine (T) and guanine (G) always pairs with cytosine (C). DNA has adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. RNA has adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil. ANTIPARALLEL ★ The two sugar phosphate backbones of DNA run in opposite 5’→3’ directions from each other. ★ The 5’ end is where the phosphate group is attached to the fifth carbon. The 3’ end is where the hydroxyl group is attached to the third carbon.