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The Sociological Perspective and
Research Process 02/05/
What is Sociology? Study of human society and social interactions Why do we study sociology? o Gain a better understanding of ourselves and our social world o Learn about others o See how behavior is shaped by the groups to which we belong and by our society Society Large social grouping that shares the same geographical territory and is subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations o Look beyond personal experiences and gain insight into the larger world order What is the Sociological Imagination? The ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and larger society C. Wright Mills Personal troubles (private problems) Public issues (social problems) o Affects larger numbers of people Global Sociological Imagination High-income countries o Industrial countries, highly industrialized economies, technology, high levels of national and personal income o High standard of living and low death rate due to advances in medical technology o United States, Canada, Japan Middle-income countries o Developing countries, moderate industrialized economies, urban areas, moderate levels of national and personal income o Eastern Europe, Latin American countries Low-income countries o Underdeveloped countries, Little industrialization (farming nations), low levels of national and personal income o Africa, Asia, India
Production economy (raw materials) manufacturing economy (factory) service economy (80-85%) KEY TERMS: o Industrialization Societies are transformed from dependence on farming and handmade products to manufacturing industries such as factories Industrial Revolution (1760-1850) o Urbanization Increasing portion of the population lives in cities rather than rural areas Factories led to rapid increase in cities and their populations People forced to leave rural areas to seek employment in factories in the cities People from diverse backgrounds began to work together and living in the same neighborhoods Led to development of new social problems Inadequate housing, crowding, unsanitary conditions, poverty, pollution, and crime Sociological Thinking Origins of sociological thinking o Upheaval in Europe o Sociology began late 17th^ century – mid 18th^ century o Some believed human society could be improved through science Early thinkers o Auguste Comte Founder of sociology Coined the term sociology Positivism A belief that the world can be best understood through scientific inquiry Methodological: the application of scientific knowledge to both physical and social phenomena Social and Political: use of knowledge to predict the likely results of different policies so that the best one could be chosen
State of lawlessness Ex) Katrina o Karl Marx Believed class conflict produced social change and better society Class conflict Struggle between capitalist class ( bourgeois ) and working class ( proletariat ) Viewed history as a clash between conflicting ideas and forces Combined ideas from philosophy, history, and social science into a new theory o Max Weber Believed sociological research should exclude personal values and economic interests Provided insights on rationalization, bureaucracy, and religion Verstehen (understanding) To gain the ability to see the world as others see it “Put yourself in their shoes” Research should be value-free Research should be conducted in a scientific manner and should exclude the researcher’s personal values and economic interests o Georg Simmel Viewed society as a web of patterned interactions among people Analyzed how social interactions vary depending on the size of the social group Formal sociology An approach that focuses attention on the universal recurring social forms that underlie the varying content of social interaction o Jane Addams Founded Hull House Most famous settlement house in Chicago Chicago school – first department of sociology Won Nobel Prize for her assistance with the needy o W.E.B. Du Bouis
One of the first to notice identity conflict with being both black and American People in the US adopt values of democracy, freedom, and equality while they accept racism and group discrimination Theoretical Perspectives Based on ideas of how social life is organized Theory o A set of logically interrelated statements that attempt to describe, explain, and predict social events 4 Major Perspectives o Functionalist Perspective Stability and social order Society is composed of interrelated parts that work together to maintain stability Manifest functions Intended and recognized by the participants in a social unit Latent functions Unintended functions that are hidden and remain unacknowledged by participants Dysfuntions Undesirable consequences o Conflict Perspective Constant struggle Karl Marx (class conflict) Groups in society are engaged in a continuous power struggle for control of scarce resources Society is characterized by social inequality Neo-Marxist approach Social class inequality Racial-ethnic inequality approach Race inequality Feminist approach Men and women should be equal Women inequality Bourgeoisie vs. Proletariat
Statement of the expected relationship between two or more variables Variables o Concept with measurable traits or characteristics that can change or vary o Independent Cause variable o Dependent Effected by the independent variable o Correlation How each variable relates/effects each other SEE WRITTEN NOTES FOR EXAMPLES OF CORRELATION Design method Research Methods o Specific strategies or techniques for conducting research o Survey Poll in which the researcher gathers facts or attempts to determine the relationship among facts Questionnaires and interviews o Second analysis Researchers use existing material and analyze data that were originally collected by others Content analysis Examination of cultural artifacts or various forms of communication to extract data and draw conclusions about social life o Field Research Study of social life in its natural setting; observing and interviewing people where they live, work, and play Participant observation Researchers collect data while being part of the activities of the group being studied Ethnography
Study of the life and activities of a group of people by researchers who may live with that group over a period of years o Experiments Carefully designed situation in which the researcher studies the impact of certain variables of subjects’ attitudes or behavior Looks for cause and effect Experimental group Subjects who are exposed to the independent variable to study its effects on them Control group Subjects who are not exposed to the independent variable Ethical Issues in Sociological Research Standards for researchers o No matter what the outcome, they have to show all their findings and outcomes truthfully o Privacy policy, don’t use research for other uses o Protect confidential information provided by participants o Must acknowledge any assistance from others and disclose sources of financial support
Set of symbols that expresses ideas and enables people to think and communicate with one another Allows themselves to distinguish themselves from outsiders Language and social reality Sapir-Whorf hypothesis Language shapes the view of reality of its speakers Does not determine social reality o Values Collective ideas about what is right or wrong, good or bad, and desirable or undesirable in a particular culture Essential for the maintenance of a society Ten Core Values Robin M. Williams, Jr.
- Individualism
- Achievement and success
- Activity and work
- Science and technology
- Progress and material comfort
- Efficiency and practicality
- Equality
- Morality and humanitarianism
- Freedom and liberty
- Racism and group superiority Values blend together Social integration vs. value contradiction Hardwork efficiency success (profits) Value contradictions Values that conflict with one another or are mutually exclusive (oppose each other) Ideal culture vs. Real culture
Ideal culture o Values and standards of behavior that people in society profess to hold Real culture o Values and standards of behavior that people actually follow o Norms Established rules of behavior or standards of conduct Perspective norms What behavior is appropriate or acceptable Proscriptive norms What behavior is inappropriate or unacceptable Formal norms Written down and involve specific punishments for violators Ex) laws Sanctions Rewards for appropriate behavior or penalties for inappropriate behavior Positive (formal) or negative (informal) Informal norms Unwritten standards of behavior understood by people who share a common identity Informal sanctions Folkways Everyday customs that may be violated within serious consequences within a particular culture Mores Strongly held norms with moral and ethical connotations that may not be violated without serious consequences in a particular culture Taboos Mores so strong that violation is considered extremely offensive and even unmentionable Laws Formal, standardized norms that have been enacted by legislatures and are enforced by formal sanctions
o Classical music, opera, ballet, live theatre, and other activities usually patronized by elite audiences o Upper-middle and upper class Popular culture o Activities, products, and services that are assumed to appeal primarily to members of the middle and working class o Rock concerts, sports games, movies Perspective of Culture Functionalist o Culture helps people meet biological (food and procreation), instrumental (law and education), and expressive (religion and art) needs Conflict o Ideas can be used by the ruling class to affect members of the other classes o Symbolic capital The acquisition of a reputation for competence and the image Symbolic interactionist o Focuses on how people create, maintain, and modify culture during everyday activities o We negotiate social realities Postmodern o Culture is based on the simulation of reality rather than reality itself
Socialization 02/05/
What is Socialization? Lifelong process of social interactions which individuals acquire a self-identity and physical, mental, and social skills needed for survival in society Essential link between an individual and society Process through which we become human Important because: o Teaches us ways to think, talk, and act that are necessary for social living o Ensures that members of society are socialized to support the existing social structure o Allows society to pass culture on to the next generation Human Development Each of us is a product of two forces o Nature vs. Nurture Hereditary – Nature Determines our physical makeup Social environment – Nurture Determines how we develop and behave Sociologists say is more important because we are totally dependent of others for our survival Sociobiology o Study of how biology affects social behavior Psychological Theories of Human Development Freud’s theory of personality o Human development occurs in three states that reflect different levels of personality o Children learn to be normal Id Basic biological drives; irrational Pleasure seeking Ego Rational; reality oriented
o Postconventional level Few adults reach this stage People view morality in terms of individual rights Moral conduct is judged by principles based on human rights that transcend government and laws Gilligan’s stages of female moral development o How females learn to be moral o Stage 1 A woman is motivated primarily by selfish concerns o Stage 2 She recognizes her responsibility to others o Stage 3 She makes a decision based on a desire to do the greatest good for herself and for others Sociological Theories of Human Development Cooley and the Looking-Glass Self o The way in which a person’s sense of self is derived from the perception of others o We imagine how our personality and appearance will look to other people o We imagine how other people judge the appearance and personality that we think we present o We develop a self-concept Self-concept Totality of our beliefs and feelings about ourselves Cooley Components The physical self The active self The social self The psychological self Self-identity
Our perception about what kind of person we are How the “self” is developing Mead and Role-Taking o George Herbert Mead o Process by which a person mentally assumes the role of another person or group in order to understand the world from that person’s or group’s point of view o The self is divided into ‘I’ and ‘Me’ “I” represents the unique traits of each person “Me” is composed of the demands of others and the awareness of those demands “I” develops first. “Me” is formed during three stages of self development o Three stages of Self Development Significant others Those persons whose care, affection, and approval are especially desired and who are most important in the development of the self Ex) parents, friends, boyfriend Preparatory stage Up to age 3 Children prepare for role-taking by imitating the people around them Play stage 3 – 5 years old Children begin to see themselves in relation to others Game stage Early school years Children understand their social position and the positions of those around them Children becomes concerned about the demand and expectations of others Generalized other Child’s awareness of the demands and expectations of the society as a whole or of the child’s subculture
o Large-scale organizations that use print or electronic means to communicate with large numbers of people o Inform us about events o Introduce to a wide variety of people o Provide an array of view points on current issues o Make us aware of products that could be beneficial to ourselves and help us be acceptable by others o Entertain us by providing the opportunity to live vicariously (through other people’s experiences) Socialization as a Lifelong Process Resocialization o Process of learning a new and different set of attitudes, values, and behaviors from those in one’s background and previous experience Voluntary resocialization Assume a new status of our own free will Involuntary resocialization Against a person’s wishes Takes place in a total institution A place where people are isolated from the rest of society for a set period of time and come under the control of the officials who run the institution
Ex) boot camp, concentration camps, prison, mental
hospitals
Social Structure and Interaction
In Everyday Life 02/05/
What is social interaction? The process by which people act toward or respond to other people and is the foundation for all relationships and groups in society What is social structure? The complex framework of societal institutions (economy, politics, religion) and the social practices (rules, social roles) that make up a society and that organize and establish limits on people’s behavior Provides the framework within which we interact with others Essential for the survival of society and for the well-being of individuals o Provides a social web of familiar support and social relationships that connects each of us to the larger society Social structure of society includes its social positions, the relationships among those positions, and the kinds of resources attached to each of the positions Social Structure: The Macrolevel Perspective At the macrolevel, the social structure of society has components: o Social institutions o Groups o Statuses o Roles o Norms Creates boundaries that define which persons or groups will be the “insiders” and which will be the “outsiders” o Social marginality State of being part insider and part outsider in the social structure Robert Park Persons who simultaneously share the life and traditions of two distinct groups Results in stigmatization Stigma Any physical or social attribute or sign that so devalues a person’s social identity that is disqualifies that person from full social acceptance Systematic examination of societies at the macrolevel, including the effects of the postindustrial economy on other social institutions Functionalist Perspective
