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Principles of Biology (Biol 198) Robbie
Bear KSU Exam 7 QUESTIONS AND
ANSWERS 2024/
_____ is a type of connective tissue and _____ is a type of epithelial tissue. Bone; lining of the digestive tract What is the top side of a vertebrate and other bilateral organisms? Dorsal side What is the bottom side of a vertebrate and other bilateral organisms? Ventral side Germ layer on the outside layer of the body. Forms skin and nervous system (nerves). Ectoderm The middle germ layer. Mostly muscle and bones. Mesoderm The inner germ layer. Forms intestines and other internal organs. Endoderm Some animals only have two germ layers. Which one is missing? Mesoderm What type of organism do you predict would lack a mesodermal layer? Aquatic invertebrates such as Cnidaria (jellyfish) and Ctenophora. How many germ levels do organ level organisms have? What are some examples of organ level organisms? 3 germ levels. Everything except for Cnidaria and Porifera. Humans, birds, fish, many many more. How many germ levels do tissue level organisms have? What are some examples of tissue level organisms? 2 germ levels. Cnidaria (jellyfish) How many germ levels do cellular level organisms have? What are some examples of cellular level organisms? ZERO germ levels. Porifera Fluid-filled space around internal organs. Body cavity Internal body cavity lined with cells derived from the mesoderm. Coelom Fluid-filled cavity is present, but only the outside is lined with mesoderm and organs are not completely anchored.
Pseudocoelom What are 6 advantages to having a coelom?
- Internal organs can be held in place with connective tissue (mesenteries).
- Further specialization and complexity of organs is possible.
- Independent movement of internal organs and body wall is possible. Ex: digestive wall can be more muscular without displacing other organs.
- Internal fluid can protect the internal environment and aid in movement of materials.
- A fluid-filled cavity can function as a "hydrostatic skeleton," where the animal can move by exerting hydraulic pressure on the fluid in the coelom.
- Overall, coelems allowed animals to evolve more complex internal structure and to be more flexible in their movement. What is meant by the term "segmented body?" Body is divided into repeating units. What is an advantage of a segmented body? There is more independent movement of body parts and more specialization of body parts. What is cephalization? Development of a structure at one end of the body with specialized feeding and sensory structures (head). What are 2 advantages to cephalization?
- Since the head (anterior) end of a mobile animal encounters objects in the environment first, it is advantageous if this end gathers and processes information as fast as possible. So, many of the major sense organs are located there, as well as the processing center (brain).
- It is also advantageous to have feeding structures near the head because if food is located, the animal will want to eat it as quickly as possible. What are the four types of animal tissue? Epithelial Connective Nervous Muscle The tissue that lines major bodily structures. Epithelial tissue What are the 3 types of epithelial tissue? Squamous Cuboidal Columnar Tissue that provides protection and support (both physical and material) of other tissues and organs.
Reproductive system What are 3 types of internal environmental parameters does an organism need to regulate?
- Temperature
- Concentration of chemicals in blood
- pH of blood Change in one direction initiates a response from the integrator that causes a change in the opposite direction. Negative feedback loop Response from the integrator tends to change the parameter in the same direction as the change detected by the receptor. Positive feedback loop What is the role of the circulatory system in thermoregulation? Blood vessels dilate or contract What is the role of the digestive system in thermoregulation? Digestion of food creates warmth. What is the role of the muscular system in thermoregulation? Shivering creates warmth In which organ of the digestive system does most of the digestion & absorption of nutrients occur? Small intestine Suppose you just ate a big Chipotle carnitas burrito. The protein in the pork is digested in the _____ and fats in the cheese are digested in the _____. stomach and small intestine; small intestine _____ increase the surface area of the small intestine and function to _____. Villi & microvilli; absorb nutrients from digested food Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the _____ of the heart, is moved to the _____, and is pumped out to the body tissues via the _____. left atrium, left ventricle; aorta Breathing and aerobic cellular respiration (ATP regeneration) are linked by movement of _____ through _____. oxygen and carbon dioxide; circulatory system Glucose is a reactant for cellular respiration. How does the body obtain glucose? Through the digestive system Oxygen is a reactant for cellular respiration. How does the body obtain oxygen? Through the respiratory system What is the overall task of a complete digestive system? Intake food, digest food and absorb its nutrients, give off indigestible materials as waste.
Digestion begins with mechanical breakdown in this body part. Carbohydrates are first digested here. Mouth Several small, accessory organs that secrete amylase along with other enzymes and helpful substances. They provide lubrication so the food travels through the digestive system smoothly. Amylase begins enzymatic digestion of starch. It buffers for pH. Salivary glands Muscular passage between the mouth and stomach that moves food using peristalsis. Esophagus The rhythmic contraction of smooth muscle to move food along the digestive tract. Peristalsis Accessory organ that secretes bile into the gall bladder. The bile breaks down large fat molecules. This body part also removes toxins from the blood. Liver Accessory organ that secretes major digestive enzymes (proteases, lipases, amylase, nucleases, etc) and bicarbonate (buffer) to neutralize the acidic contents of the stomach. Empties into the small intestine. Pancreas Muscular sack that produces acid and contributes to the mechanical breakdown of food. Helps digest protein. Used for temporary storage of mostly sterile food. HCl and pepsin are both very acidic compounds found here. Stomach Accessory organ that stores bile and secretes it into the small intestine. Gall bladder Long, muscular tube where enzymatic digestion occurs at a near neutral pH and nutrients are absorbed. Villi and microvilli increase its surface area. Small intestine Digestive organ where H ₂ O, ions, vitamin K (produced by bacteria) are absorbed and wastes are eliminated. Large intestine Give the order of 9 events in the circulatory system.
- Deoxygenated blood from the body returns to the heart via the vena cava.
- Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium.
- Deoxygenated blood enters the right ventricle
- Deoxygenated blood is pumped to the lungs via the pulmonary artery.
- Gas diffusion occurs within the lungs.
- Oxygenated blood leaves the lungs via the pulmonary vein.
During inhalation, the air is first inhaled into the... nasal cavity After passing through the nasal cavity, the air enters the ______, or the throat. pharynx After passing through the pharynx, air goes to the ________, or the voice box. larynx After passing through the larynx, air goes to the ________. Its main function is to funnel the inhaled air to the lungs and the exhaled air back out of the body. trachea There are two primary _______, then many smaller ones known as secondary and tertiary _______. The primary ones connect the lungs and the trachea. The secondary and tertiary ones spread throughout the lungs. Bronchi Specialized respiratory tissue that contains bronchi and bronchiole. Sort of the connector between the respiratory and circulatory systems. Lung Responsible for gas exchange. They are tethered to the end of bronchioles and keep in close contact with capillaries to ensure that oxygen will diffuse from "this" into the blood and be distributed to the cells of the body. alveoli What structure in the digestive system does the digestion of complex carbohydrates start? Mouth What structure in the digestive system does the digestion of complex carbohydrates finish? Small intestine What enzyme produced by the pancreas digest carbohydrates? Pancreatic amylase Briefly explain how carbohydrates are moved from the lumen of the small intestine to the circulatory system. Polysaccharides enter epithelial cell in the small intestine, then they enter the capillary. What component of blood transports carbohydrates? Plasma In what structure of the digestive system does protein digestion start? Stomach In what structure of the digestive system does protein digestion finish? Small intestine What 4 enzymes are produced by the pancreas that digest proteins?
- Trypsin
- Elastase chymotrypsin
- Aminopeptidase
- Dipeptidase Briefly explain how amino acids are moved from the lumen of the small intestine to the circulatory system. They move into the epithelial cell of the small intestine via transport proteins and they then enter the capillaries. In what structure of the digestive system does lipid digestion start and finish? Small intestine What enzyme produced by the pancreas digests lipids? Lipase What are the products of the digestion of lipids? Fatty acids and glycerol What molecule produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder assists with digestion of fats? Bile Briefly explain how fatty acids and glycerol are moved from the lumen of the small intestine into the lymphatic system and then to the circulatory system. Components of lipids enter the epithelial cell via diffusion. They then form triglyceride, leave the cell via exocytosis into lacteal of lymph vessels. How is water movement related to and/or dependent upon absorption of biological molecules? Water also moves to areas of higher ion concentration. Water and ions are needed for efficient function of digestive enzymes. Organic nutrients that can't be synthesized and must be obtained from food in small amounts. Vitamins Inorganic nutrients that can't be synthesized and must be obtained from food in small amounts. Minerals What is the difference between vitamins and minerals? Vitamins are organic, minerals are inorganic. Why are vitamins and minerals important? Having too little results in disease, having too much results in disorders. They cannot be produced by the body. How do animals acquire vitamins and minerals? From their diet In what structure of the respiratory system does gas exchange occur? Alveoli What is hemoglobin and what does it do?
Based on the lipase/bile test tube experiment, what do you predict about fat digestion in a person who has had their gallbladder removed? They couldn't digest as much fat because the gall bladder stores bile which increases the rate of lipid digestion. Biochemically speaking, how do we eat? We hydrolyze polymers down and transport these monomers into cells. Why is gas exchange necessary? We need oxygen for cellular respiration and we don't have enough space to store a wasteful byproduct like carbon dioxide. Erythrocytes are better know as... red blood cells Leukocytes are better known as... white blood cells Thrombocytes are better known as... platelets Be able to identify arteries, veins, and capillaries in the vertebrate cardiovascular system. On 26.3 of the textbook. Be able to identify the major structures of the mammalian heart and know the blood flow. On 26.3 of the textbook. The resting potential of a typical neuron is about _____, this charge gradient is due to the constant activity of a protein known as the _____. (Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate choices from the list provided.) (QZ)
- 70 mV; sodium-potassium pump When a neuron is depolarized, _____ ions rush into the cell and the inside of the cell quickly becomes _____ with respect to the extracellular fluid. (Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate choice from the list provided.) (QZ) sodium; positive The peripheral nervous system contains _____. Both sensory neurons and motor neurons When blood glucose is too high, _____ is released from _____ which instructs body cells to _____. (Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate choice from the list provided.) (QZ) insulin; beta cells of the pancreas; take up glucose
The pituitary hormones _____ and _____ stimulate formation of both male and female gametes in vertebrates. (Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate choice from the list provided.) (QZ) FSH; LH What are the 3 functions of the nervous system?
- Collect information from external and internal environments using sensory neurons.
- Process incoming information and determine an action/reaction using interneurons.
- Respond using motor neurons. What is the functional unit of the nervous system? Neuron Projections of a nervous system cell that carry signals toward the cell body. Dendrites Fatty coating that's found on axons of some neurons. Acts like insulation on electrical wire and increases the speed of action potential. Myelin sheath Single, long projection from a nervous system cell that carries signals away from the cell body. Axon Type of neuron that is part of peripheral nervous system that carries impulses away from the central nervous system. Can be voluntary (skeletal muscles) or involuntary (internal organs). Motor neurons Know the parts of a neuron. On page 428 of studio manual. What are the two main parts of the central nervous system?
- Brain
- Spinal cord What are the three types of neurons?
- Sensory neurons
- Interneurons
- Motor neurons Type of neuron that is part of peripheral nervous system that carries impulses from receptors to the central nervous system. They can be voluntary or involuntary. Sensory neurons Type of neuron that belongs to the central nervous system. They filter and process incoming information and formulate a response. Interneurons What are the 2 components of the peripheral nervous system?
Testosterone Hormone that promotes male secondary sexual characteristics and sperm production. Testosterone What two hormones are produced by the ovaries?
- Estrogen
- Progesterone Hormone that promotes female secondary sexual characteristics and egg production. Estrogen Hormone that helps regulate the menstrual cycle and maintain pregnancy. Progesterone Part of the digestive system, but it is also a gland that produces hormones. Pancreas What two hormones are produced by the pancreas?
- Insulin
- Glucagon Hormone that reduces blood glucose levels. Insulin Hormone that increases blood glucose levels. Glucagon Organ of urinary system that stores urine for excretion. In females, it is located ventral to the vagina. Bladder Produces nutrient rich fluid that's added to the semen. Only in males. Prostate gland For males, it is part of both the reproductive and urinary system. Tube through which urine and semen pass from the body. Urine is blocked during ejaculation. For females, it's the only part of the urinary system and transports urine out of the body. Urethra Long, slender ducts that transport sperm through epididymis to urethra. vas Deferens Location of sperm maturation and storage. During sexual arousal, contractions "here" transport sperm into the vas deferens. Epididymis Location of meiosis in males. They act as glands and produce the hormone testosterone. Testes Male copulatory organ. Also functions as a conduit for urine. Penis
Know the anatomy of the male reproductive system. On page 431 of lab manual. Know the anatomy of the female reproductive system. On page 431 of lab manual. Long, slender tubes that transport the egg to the uterus. This is where fertilization occurs, where Meiosis II is completed, and where the embryo begins dividing. Fallopian tubes Site of embryo and fetal development. Uterus Female copulatory organ and birth canal. Vagina The electrical gradient across the membrane when a cell is not actively conducting impulses. Resting potential Which channel (sodium or potassium) opens first? Sodium channel Which channel (sodium or potassium) flows more quickly? Sodium channel What happens when the external concentration of sodium is decreased by half? The resting potential is unchanged. No movement of ions. There is no action potential. Why is sodium necessary for an action potential? A high concentration of sodium is needed outside the cell so it can rush in. When the Na⁺ isn't present in high concentrations, there is no action potential. What happens when the internal potassium concentration is decreased by a half? The resting potential is higher because K⁺ acts as the "negative" ion compared to the high concentration of positive sodium. This makes the resting potential "less negative," or greater. The sodium flux doesn't need to be as great now. Why is the resting potential higher when K ⁺ internal concentration is less? The resting potential is higher because K⁺ acts as the "negative" ion compared to the high concentration of positive sodium. This makes the resting potential "less negative," or greater. Which ion gradient (sodium or potassium) controls the action potential? Sodium Which ion gradient (sodium or potassium) controls the resting potential? Potassium On the millivolts vs time graph, where is the resting potential? The horizontal line from 0-3 milliseconds. On the millivolts vs time graph, where is the depolarization? The increase in voltage from 3-4 milliseconds.
What are the two types of hormones?
- Steroid hormones
- Peptide hormones What are the 3 characteristics that define a steroid hormone?
- Readily pass through the plasma membrane of a cell because they are soluble in lipids.
- Have receptors inside the target cell.
- Affect protein production by activating DNA/RNA. What are the 3 characteristics that define a peptide hormone?
- Cannot pass through the plasma membrane without a channel.
- Bind with receptors which are embedded in outer surface of the plasma membrane.
- Interact with receptors to activate molecules known as second messengers. The second messengers initiate a chain of reactions which ultimately activate other existing proteins usually no new proteins are made. What mechanism ensures that hormones are specific to particular target cells? Receptors What are the 3 general parts of hormone action?
- Signal reception
- Signal transduction
- Cellular response (induction) Occurs when the hormone is "recognized" by a cell when it binds with a particular protein called a receptor. Reception Intermediate step that essentially activates a set of intermediary complexes. Transduction Cellular response, when the cell begins doing the task directed by the hormone. Induction What are the 2 hormones created by the pancreas?
- Glucagon
- Insulin The hormone produced by the pancreas that goes to the liver. It makes changes to glucose. It increases blood glucose levels. Glucagon The hormone produced by the pancreas that goes to the liver and body cells to take up glucose. Decrease blood glucose levels. Insulin How is the release of insulin and glucagon a negative feedback?
As more insulin or glucagon is produced, the blood sugar problem should be fixed, so less insulin or glucagon should be needed. What problems can arise if normal pancreatic functioning is disrupted? The body would not be able to maintain blood sugar levels because they wouldn't have glucagon or insulin. How is insulin and glucagon a homeostatic system? They maintain blood sugar levels. What are the 3 phases of digestive regulation?
- Cephalic phase
- Gastric phase
- Intestinal phase What happens during the cephalic phase of digestion? (3 steps)
- Stimulus = see, smell, or think about food. This stimulus is sent to the brain.
- Automatic nervous system sends messages to the stomach.
- Stomach secretes substances (HCl, mucus, pepsin) to prepare for food. What happens during the gastric phase of the digestive system? (3 steps)
- Stimulus = stretching of sensors in stomach wall (distension), presence of undigested materials.
- Local nerves order secretion of stomach juices (HCl, mucus, pepsin) and the hormone gastrin, and stimulates muscle contraction.
- Gastrin also feeds back through the bloodstream to increase production of stomach juices and stimulate muscle contraction. What happens during the intestinal phase? (3 things)
- Stimulus = chyme stretching the small intestine and presence of lipids and carbohydrates.
- Nerves inhibit secretion of stomach juices and gastrin and inhibits muscle contraction.
- Hormones stimulate release of bile (from liver and gall bladder) and digestive enzymes (from pancreas) and inhibits stomach secretions and muscle contractions. Describe the chemicals contained in birth control pills and explain the function they have that prevents pregnancy. The pill contains estrogen and progesterone, which prevent ovulation (when an ovary releases an egg). What are the 4 characteristics of asexual reproduction?
- Requires less energy
- Rapid population growth
- Single parent
- Offspring genetically identical to each other and to parent What are the 4 characteristics of sexual reproduction?
- Offspring are better adapted to environmental change.
- Less likely to become extinct.
Viruses are classified as _____. acellular parasites An _____ is a substance that is foreign to the body of an organism and that stimulates an immune response. antigen _____ are part of the adaptive immunity of an organism; and _____ are part of the innate immunity. T cells; Natural killer cells Antibodies do what? Bind pathogens and mark them for destruction by immune cells What are the five basic senses?
- Olfaction (smell)
- Gustation (taste)
- Equilibrium (balance and body position)
- Vision
- Hearing Which two senses directly detect chemicals in the environment? What are the names of the sensory cells involved in these senses? Olfaction (smell) and gustation (taste). Chemoreceptors. Which sense directly detects electromagnetic radiation? What are the names of the sensory cells involved? Vision; photoreceptors What two senses depend on cells called mechanoreceptors? Equilibrium and hearing What system receives signals from the senses and uses that information to properly respond to the environment? Nervous system What is a reflex arc? Short series of nerve cells consisting of a sensory neuron, an interneuron in spinal cord, and motor neuron. Using the example of touching a hot candle, explain the reflex arc in 4 steps.
- The receptor on the skin detects the heat from candle.
- This impulse is sent to the sensory neuron.
- The impulse is then sent to the interneuron in the spinal cord.
- The impulse is then sent to the motor neuron, which contracts the arm muscle, moving the hand/skin away from the harmful candle.
What are the 5 functions of the integumentary system? The integumentary system protects the body from what 5 things? Protect body from:
- Physical damage
- Invasion from other organisms
- Dehydration
- Overheating
- Freezing (Pie Is Delicious On Fire.) Why is the skin considered an organ? It is made up of tissue that work together to perform a similar function. Outermost layer of skin made up of epithelial tissues provide waterproof barrier. Epidermis Thicker, middle layer of skin that contains connective tissues, hair follicles (or other coating like feathers and scales) with attendant muscles, sweat glands, sensory nerves, and blood vessels. Dermis Deeper layer of skin consisting largely of fat (provides insulation) and other connective tissue. Hypodermis What are the 3 main functions of the lymphatic system?
- Absorb intercellular fluid that has leaked from capillaries and return it to circulatory system.
- Absorb digested fat from the villi of small intestine and transport it to circulatory system.
- Manufacture, store, and transport many components of immunity that protect the body from invading organisms. What are the 4 functions of lymph nodes?
- B lymphocytes divide and differentiate within lymph nodes.
- Nodes also contain T-lymphocytes and macrophages.
- As lymph flows through the nodes, the macrophages engulf and digest viruses, bacteria, other micro organisms, and debris from damaged cells.
- Nodes function as a filter for lymph. What are the 3 functions of the spleen?
- Filters microorganisms and cellular debris from the blood.
- B-lymphocytes multiply and differentiate inside the spleen.
- Stores extra blood cells and platelets. What are 2 functions of the thymus gland?
- Secretes group of hormones called thymasin, which are involved in maturation of T-lymphocytes.
- Stem cells produced in bone marrow mature into specialized T-lymphocytes in the thymus. What is the function of the red bone marrow? Manufactures blood cells
