Identification of Small Arms: A Handbook, Study notes of Law

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CHAPTER 3

Weapons Identification:

Small Arms

A Guide to the Identification of Small Arms and Light Weapons

Handbook

Introduction

When most people think of ‘guns’, they are thinking of small arms. Broadly speak- ing, small arms are firearms intended for use by individuals. Small arms are the primary weapons issued to military, law enforcement, and other armed security personnel, and are widely owned and used by civilians for hunting, sport shoot- ing, and other pursuits. The key characteristics of firearms considered to be small arms are their portability (they may be transported and operated by a single in- dividual on foot), and their calibre (less than 20 mm) (ARES, 2017; forthcoming). This chapter begins with a brief presentation of key types of small arms, ad- dressing their history and technical development. The chapter then provides an overview of the most important physical features and markings by which these arms are identified. It also briefly examines feed devices (such as magazines), accessories, packaging, and shipping documentation, which can provide valuable information about the provenance of firearms. Ammunition for small arms is ad- dressed in Chapter 4.

History and technical development

Today’s small arms have their roots in the Victorian era. Some manually-operat- ed rifles, in particular, have changed little since the late 19th century. The revolv- er predates the invention of modern cartridges, and the archetypal self-loading pistol created in 1911 as the Colt ‘Government Model’ is still in military use today. Even the automatic machine gun was being sold to authorities around the world by 1897. By the end of the First World War, all of the categories of small arms now in use had been invented, if not finalized in their design or application (ARES, 2017).

Firearms: a brief description

Modern firearms take many different forms, but they all have the following com- ponents: a ‘stock’ (and/or pistol grip), a ‘barrel’, and the ‘action’, which refers to the operating components of a weapon.^22 One of the main parts of a stock (and, in some guns, the only part) is the ‘butt-stock’. This is the portion of a long gun

22 The word ‘firearm’ was originally coined in the medieval period and referred to any weapon mak- ing use of fire for destructive effect. Though it became, and remains for most English speakers, synonymous with ‘gun’, a ‘firearm’ can more properly be considered to be a man-portable gun (ARES, 2016a).

A Guide to the Identification of Small Arms and Light Weapons

Handbook Nearly all firearms function in the same basic manner. The operator pulls the trigger, causing an internal mechanism to allow the weapon’s firing pin to strike the primer, located in the base of the cartridge. The primer ignites the propellant, which generates rapidly-expanding gases as it burns. The build-up of pressure from the expanding gas within a sealed chamber (the ‘breech’) pushes the pro- jectile down the barrel, out of the muzzle, and towards the target (see Figure 3.3). The discharge of a firearm is accompanied by a flash and blast at the muzzle, and by recoil that is typically perceived by the user (ARES, 2017).^24 Modern firearms—with the notable exception of shotguns—primarily feature rifled barrels (see Figure 3.4). Rifling refers to the internal geometry, typically either spiral grooves or polygonal faces inside the bore which engage the projec- tile and cause it to rotate as it is accelerated up the barrel (see Figure 3.5). This

24 This is properly known as ‘perceived recoil’ or ‘felt recoil’, but is often referred to simply as ‘re- coil’ (ARES, 2017).

Figure 3.2 Typical features of a modern handgun

Slide serrations

Magazine well

Accessory rail

Magazine release (reverse)

Weapons Identification: Small Arms

rotation imparts gyroscopic stability to the projectile, ensuring that it flies accu- rately and point first (ARES, 2016a). Firearms make use of a variety of operating systems (‘actions’). At their most basic, firearms allow the user to load and chamber a cartridge, fire the weapon, and then extract and eject the fired cartridge case. More complex operating sys- tems allow for semi-automatic and automatic fire, in which the firearm is (re)cocked for the next shot when it is discharged (ARES, 2017).^25

25 Automatic firearms are sometimes described as having ‘fully-automatic’, ‘full automatic’, or ‘full auto’ operation. While these terms are commonplace in civilian, military, and occasionally even technical use, the term ‘automatic’ is sufficient.

Figure 3.3 The build-up of gas pressure behind a projectile during the firing sequence of a firearm

Note: The cartridge case and bolt face provide a gas seal. Adapted from: Chinn (1955, p. 4)

Figure 3.4 Rifled and smooth-bore barrels

Source: Wikimedia Commons

Figure 3.5 Conventional grooved rifling (left) and octagonal polygonal rifling (right)

Weapons Identification: Small Arms

The key distinction within self-loading firearms is between semi-automatic and automatic firearms.

Semi-automatic firearm: a self-loading firearm which is capable of firing only one shot with each trigger pull (ARES, 2017). Automatic firearm : a self-loading firearm which is capable of firing multiple shots with a single trigger pull (ARES, 2017). Most rifles in military service today are self-loading designs capable of auto- matic fire. Semi-automatic versions are available for many of these rifles, which are used for civilian self-defence, law enforcement, and sporting and hunting applications in some countries (Jenzen-Jones, 2017d). It can often be difficult to visually differentiate automatic from semi-automatic variants of the same basic design, and so the term ‘self-loading’ is preferred in these cases. Self-loading pistols are the dominant class of handgun today, in widespread global use by armed forces, law enforcement and, in many countries, civilians. They are also known as ‘semi-automatic pistols’ (ARES, 2017).

Handguns

The modern term ‘handgun’ came into use in the early 20th century as an um- brella term for non-repeating pistols, self-loading pistols (see Image 3.1), and revolvers (see Image 3.2).^30 Today the self-loading pistol dominates (see Figure 3.6); revolvers, though still frequently encountered in the civilian world, are less commonly used by militaries or law enforcement personnel. In militaries, pistols are primarily used as weapons for personal defence only. Pistols are still widely used by law enforcement agencies, civilians, and criminals, however, primarily because they are highly portable and concealable (ARES, 2017).

Sub-machine guns

The sub-machine gun (SMG) was conceived as a fully portable automatic weap- on that could be employed at close range by an individual user. SMGs have shorter barrels than most machine guns and rifles, and typically fire pistol-calibre

30 Following their introduction in the 19th century, revolvers were commonly known as ‘revolver pistols’. This label is uncommon today, but remains technically accurate.

A Guide to the Identification of Small Arms and Light Weapons

Handbook

Image 3.1 A Soviet Baikal PM 9 × 18 mm self-loading pistol

Image 3.2 A Belgian C.F. Galand 12 × 15.5 mm revolver

Source: N.R. Jenzen-Jones/ARES Source: N.R. Jenzen-Jones/ARES

Figure 3.6 Typical arrangement of a modern self-loading pistol, showing some internal components Slide

Frame

Firing pin Chamber

Recoil spring

Magazine spring

Muzzle

A Guide to the Identification of Small Arms and Light Weapons

Handbook

In recent years, the short-range SMG has fallen from favour among militaries and law enforcement agencies, which increasingly use compact variants of self-loading rifles instead (ARES, 2017; Jenzen-Jones, 2017d).^33

Shotguns

The simplest common modern shotgun design, the break-open breech-loading type, was fully developed by the 1870s (Greener, 1910; Taylor, 2016). Figure 3. shows the typical features of a break-action shotgun, in both single-barrel and double-barrel configurations. While break-action shotguns are rarely seen in law enforcement or military service, they remain popular with civilian shooters and criminals, and are sometimes encountered with shortened (‘sawed-off’) barrels and/or stocks to enhance their concealability.

33 The short-range SMG’s fall from favour largely coincided with the introduction and proliferation of assault rifles, especially compact variants such as the Colt XM177 (first introduced in 1966) (ARES, 2016a). Even semi-automatic pistol-calibre carbines used by law enforcement personnel have been largely supplanted by intermediate calibre equivalents.

Image 3.4 A German Heckler & Koch MP7 4.6 × 30 mm SMG

Note: This type of SMG is regarded by some as a ‘personal defence weapon’. There is a void at the base of the pistol grip; the box magazine is absent in this image. There is also a muzzle protector covering the flash hider. Source: N.R. Jenzen-Jones/ARES

Weapons Identification: Small Arms

The first successful pump-action shotguns were introduced by Winchester in 1897 (Taylor, 2016). These types of shotguns are now in common civilian and law enforcement use (see, for example, Images 3.5, 3.6). Their typical features are shown in Figure 3.8. Bolt and lever-action shotguns of a design introduced in the late 19th century are in limited use, almost entirely by civilians. Self-loading shotguns, using systems of operation developed for machine guns and rifles, did not become popular until the mid-20th century (ARES, 2016a). 34 While self-load- ing shotguns are widely used by sport shooters and law enforcement agencies,

34 An example of this type of weapon is the recoil-operated Browning Automatic 5.

Figure 3.7 Typical features of a break-action shotgun

Adapted from: ATF (2018)

Figure 3.8 Typical features of a pump-action shotgun

Adapted from: ATF (2018)

Weapons Identification: Small Arms

still used today emerged from this period of innovation, including the bolt, lever, and pump actions (ARES, 2017; see Image 3.7). Bolt-action rifles remain in limit- ed military service today, often as dedicated sniper rifles with an effective range of more than 1,000 m for individual targets (Jenzen-Jones, 2017c; 2017d; see Image 3.8). Lever- and pump-action rifles, however, have fallen out of favour for military and law enforcement purposes (ARES, 2016a). The French invention of smokeless powder in the 1880s allowed for increased velocities and reduced fouling, result- ing in the first self-loading and automatic rifle designs (Jenzen-Jones, 2017d). Self-loading rifles were first widely adopted during and after the Second World War. They are the primary weapon for most infantry, and are in widespread use among non-state armed groups (Jenzen-Jones, 2017d). Self-loading rifles also

Image 3.7 A Turkish conversion of a French Berthier Modèle 1907-15 8 × 50R mm bolt-action rifle

Note: Despite being a very old design, similar rifles are still encountered in limited numbers in conflict zones. Source: N.R. Jenzen-Jones/ARES

Image 3.8 A Canadian PGW Defence Technologies Timberwolf .338 Lapua Magnum (8.6 × 70 mm) bolt-action rifle

Note: In this case, the bolt-action rifle is fitted with a telescopic sight and suppressor. This type of rifle is representative of a dedicated sniper rifle in modern military service. Source: Chloe Tousignant/ARES

A Guide to the Identification of Small Arms and Light Weapons

Handbook

dominate law enforcement and civilian markets. Semi-automatic variants of as- sault rifles, which are often referred to as ‘modern sporting rifles’ and are popular among civilians in some countries, should not be confused with true (i.e. automatic) assault rifles, nor labelled as such (ARES, 2016a; Jenzen-Jones, 2017b).^37 The term ‘carbine’ is widely used, but it is too imprecise to meaningfully define any particular group of small arms in modern usage and often causes confusion. It originated as a reference to a specific military rifle of reduced size, weight, and smaller calibre issued primarily to cavalry and other units which did not require a full-sized rifle (see Image 3.9). Since then, the term carbine has devolved into a colloquial or marketing term for any relatively short-barrelled shoulder arm, and, as such, has little descriptive value and should be avoided (ARES, 2016a; 2017).

Anti-tank rifles and anti-materiel rifles Anti-tank rifles (ATR) originated in the First World War as a response to the de- ployment of the tank in 1916 (see Image 3.10). Typical examples include manually-operated and semi-automatic rifles firing either very high-velocity 7. mm ammunition, or larger calibres of 12.7–20 mm, all of which fired solid, ar- mour-piercing projectiles.^38 During the Second World War, tank armour became

37 Recent combat experience has resulted in a limited return to more powerful, medium-range, self- loading and automatic infantry rifles (often called Designated Marksman Rifles or DMR) to plug a ‘capability gap’ and operate out to 800 m (Jenzen-Jones, 2016a). 38 The concept was first embodied in the Mauser M1918 Tankgewehr, functionally a scaled-up bolt- action rifle, and further developed by the Soviets with their PTRS-41, an adaptation of self-loading rifle technology to a much larger 14.5 × 114 mm cartridge (ARES, 2017).

Image 3.9 A French Manufacture d’armes de Châtellerault Carabine de Cuirassier Modèle 1890 8 × 50R mm bolt-action rifle

Note: This type of bolt-action rifle was historically considered to be a ‘carbine’. Source: N.R. Jenzen-Jones/ARES

A Guide to the Identification of Small Arms and Light Weapons

Handbook

light armoured vehicles, aircraft on the ground, and personnel at long range (up to 2,000 m), and for explosive ordnance disposal (ARES, 2016a; 2017). To maximize effectiveness, these rifles often use ammunition with incendiary and explosive as well as armour-piercing characteristics (see Chapter 4).^40

‘Assault rifles’ Assault rifles are a specific subset of self-loading rifles. The term ‘assault rifle’ was coined in Germany during the Second World War to describe the Sturmgewehr StG 44, a compact automatic rifle firing shortened ammunition that was more powerful than ammunition used in SMGs but less powerful than ammunition used in military rifles and machine guns (ARES, 2016a; Clapham et al., 2016).^41 The purpose of these weapons was to provide greater effective range than a SMG while also allowing for controllable automatic fire from the shoulder (Jen- zen-Jones, 2017d). The definitive assault rifle still in common use globally remains

40 A modern, in-service example is the Nammo 12.7 × 99 mm NM140F2 multipurpose cartridge (Nammo, 2014, p. 57). 41 The ammunition used in SMGs has a muzzle energy of approximately 500–800 J, while ammuni- tion used in military rifles and machine guns has approximately 3,000–4,000 J muzzle energy (ARES, 2016a).

Image 3.12 A British Imperial Defence Services MG4A5 5.56 × 45 mm self-loading rifle

Note: This type of self-loading rifle is considered by some to be an ‘assault rifle’ and/or a ‘carbine’. It is difficult to visual- ly distinguish this British example from US-made AR-15 and M16/M4 series rifles. Source: N.R. Jenzen-Jones/ARES

Weapons Identification: Small Arms

the Russian AK type, and its 7.62 × 39 mm cartridge is similarly ubiquitous (see Box 3.1). Assault rifles developed and deployed by Western countries are cham- bered for lighter cartridges. 42 The 5.56 × 45 mm cartridges fired by some of these rifles (such as that in Image 3.12), which were inspired by the Armalite AR15, remain a NATO standard and are common in many parts of the world.^43 Assault rifles have supplanted both SMGs and other rifles as the new standard infantry weapon (Jenzen-Jones, 2017d; Popenker and Williams, 2004). While the term ‘as- sault rifle’ can be defined, it is relatively difficult to assess and does not add value to most reports (see Box 3.2).^44 Its use is therefore not recommended, except in specific circumstances; ‘self-loading rifle’ or ‘automatic rifle’ is generally preferred (ARES, 2017).

42 So-called ‘small-calibre, high-velocity’ (SCHV) cartridges. 43 The 5.56 × 45 mm NATO cartridge was joined in the 1970s and 1980s by the Russian 5.45 × 39 mm and the Chinese 5.8 × 42 mm (Jenzen-Jones, 2017d). 44 The term is generally defined partly as a function of muzzle energy, being a rifle capable of auto- matic fire and chambered for an intermediate-power cartridge typically producing 1,300 J to 2, J of muzzle energy (ARES, 2017). 45 The very first production AK (sometimes called the ‘Type 1’) featured a largely stamped receiver before the ‘Type 2’ was introduced with a milled receiver in 1951 (followed by the ‘Type 3’, which also had a milled receiver) (Ferguson and Jenzen-Jones, 2014b; Jenzen-Jones, 2018). These early AK types may still be encountered in the field; however, even these feature a visibly machined trunnion block and are sufficiently rare that they may be conflated with the more common pre- AKM variants (the ‘Type 2’ and ‘Type 3’). 46 See, for example, Concern Kalashnikov (2014).

Box 3.1 Myths and misconceptions: ‘AK-47’ Strictly speaking, there are no Soviet or Russian AK-47 rifles to be found in the field, as this desig- nation refers to a small number of prototype weapons that were never issued. The original mass- produced rifle based on the AK-47 prototype was designated simply AK (Avtomat Kalashnikova) in 1948, and was followed by the modernized AKM (Avtomat Kalashnikova Modernizirovannyy) in

1959. 45 Similarly, despite persistent accounts in Western publications, there was never a Soviet rifle designated the ‘AK-49’. The first Soviet Kalashnikov to be named for its year of introduction was the AK-74 (Avtomat Kalashnikova obraztsa 1974). There are now nearly 200 variants, derivatives, and copies of AK rifles (both licensed and unlicensed), which are produced throughout the world (Ferguson and Jenzen-Jones, 2014b; Jenzen-Jones, 2018). At least 70 million AK-type rifles have been produced since 1949, making it the most common self-loading military rifle in existence (Jenzen-Jones, 2017d). The name ‘AK-47’ is often incorrectly applied to any Kalashnikov-derived rifle, regardless of type or country of origin. Even weapons specialists and the original manufacturer (now known as Concern Kalashnikov) have incorrectly used the term AK-47 to refer to AK variants chambered for 7.62 × 39 mm (for example see Image 3.13). 46 As a result of this indiscriminate usage, most firearms (^) 

Weapons Identification: Small Arms

Image 3.14 A Belgian FN Herstal Minimi Para 5.56 × 45 mm LMG

Note: This type of LMG is referred to in US military service as a ‘squad automatic weapon’. Source: N.R. Jenzen-Jones/ARES

Image 3.15 A British L86A2 5.56 × 45 mm LMG

Note: This type of LMG is referred to in British military service as a ‘light support weapon’. Source: N.R. Jenzen-Jones/ARES

A Guide to the Identification of Small Arms and Light Weapons

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guns are belt-fed and/or feature interchangeable barrels, although some have fixed barrels and box magazines. LMGs are also sometimes referred to as ‘squad automatic weapons’ (SAW) or ‘light support weapons’ (LSW) (ARES, 2017; see Images 3.14, 3.15). The general-purpose machine gun (GPMG) is a belt-fed weapon that can be used by dismounted infantry (soldiers operating on foot) or attached to a heavi- er mount or vehicle for sustained fire applications (Popenker and Williams, 2008; see Image 3.16).^49 The more flexible GPMG supplanted both the dedicated me- dium machine gun and so-called ‘heavy’ machine guns chambered for smaller calibres (such as the Maxim gun) (ARES, 2017).^50 The subcategory is probably best defined by the Belgian FN MAG 58 (1958) and the Russian PK (1961) types.

49 Early examples include the German MG 34 and MG 42. 50 The modern HMG is a larger-calibre weapon typically operated by a crew and classified as a light weapon (see Chapter 5).

Image 3.16 A Hungarian copy of the Soviet PKM 7.62 × 54R mm GPMG

Source: Kristóf Nagy/ARES