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REFERENCE
present tenses
present simple
We use the present simple for habits, repeated actions and routines, for things that are always true, with adverbs and expressions of frequency (e.g. usually, always, often).
They usually watch TV in the evenings. Every once in a while I go mountain biking with my dad.
present continuous
We use the present continuous for actions happening now, or around now, for temporary actions, with always to talk about repeated actions or annoying habits, for situations that are changing.
They ’re building a new sports centre at my school. My sister’ s always borrowing my things without asking.
state verbs
These kinds of verbs describe a state. They cannot usually be used in the continuous form. They include:
verbs of thinking: agree, believe, disagree, doubt, know, suppose
verbs of sense/perception: see , smell , taste , hear
verbs describing attitudes: dislike , hate, like , love, need , prefer, want
verbs describing appearance, qualities: appear , look , seem , sound
verbs of being and possession: be , belong to , contain , have, own, possess
O ther verbs: cost , fi t , mean , owe, weigh
We can use some state verbs in the continuous form when we describe actions.
I think this is the best choice. (I believe it) I’ m thinking about which one to choose. (I’m considering it)
present perfect simple
We use present perfect simple for states that started in the past and continue now. We use since with a specific point in time and for with a period of time.
I’ve been at this school for three years/since I was 12.
We also use it:
- to talk about recently fi nished actions or past actions with a present result. The focus is on the result.
I'm soaking wet! I’ ve just walked home from school in the rain.
- for actions that have happened at an unspecified past time
My basketball team has won lots of matches.
We also use present perfect with already , yet, ever and never
I’ve already fi nished my book. Has he finished his dinner yet?
Have you ever been to Mexico? I’ve never performed on stage.
We use ever and never with the comparative and superlative.
This is the most expensive phone I’ve ever bought. I’ve never had a more expensive phone.
present perfect continuous
We use present perfect continuous for actions that started in the past and continue now. Sam’ s been learning Greek since last June. We also use it for continuous actions in the recent past that have a result in the present. My brother’ s been baking cakes. The house smells lovely! We can also use it to emphasise the long duration of an activity. We’v e been looking for you all morning!
comparative forms: adjectives
and adverbs
irregular adjectives/adverbs
adjective comparative superlative adverb good better the best well bad worse the worst badly far further the furthest far little less the least little much/many more the most much/a lot
too and ( not ) enough
We use too + adjective/adverb to mean more than necessary or not + adjective/adverb + enough to mean not sufficient. It's too hot , I can’t eat it. / It isn't cool enough to eat. This question is too difficult for me to answer. The water is deep enough to dive into.
comparing two equal things
We use (just) as + adjective/adverb + as. She’s as clever as her sister. We use not as + adjective/adverb + as to mean less than. The black jumper is not as expensive as the green one.
double comparatives
We use a double comparative for emphasis and to show continual change. I’m becoming better and better at chess. The later it got, the more worried she became.
adverbs of degree
We use much , slightly , far , rather , a lot , a bit , a little , even with comparative forms. I’d be much happier if you stayed. This room is slightly bigger than the other room. These earrings are rather more expensive.
GRAMMAR FILE B
articles: a, an, the, zero article
a / an
We use a/an:
- to refer to things in general, as an example of a type of thing Sarah likes to eat an apple a day.
- with singular countable nouns mentioned for the fi rst time I’ve always wanted to go on a skiing holiday.
- with jobs, some illnesses, some numbers She’s a chef; I’ve got a sore throat; you’ve told me a million times!
- in set phrases or expressions a couple of, twice a week, a few problems, once in a while
the
We use the to refer to specifi c things or things that have already been mentioned. He goes to the gym twice a week. That’s the boy I was talking about. We also use it:
- when there’s only one. the sun, the moon, the Earth
- for superlatives. You’re the best!
- for some important buildings. the town hall, the theatre
- for some countries, rivers, deserts, seas, oceans. the United Kingdom (the UK), the Ne the rlands, the United States, the Thames, the Sahara, the Pacifi c
- for plural names of mountain ranges. the Alps, the Pyrenees
- for newspapers, inventions, musical instruments. The New York Times Who invented the computer? I play the guitar.
- with an adjective to mean a particular group of people. the rich, the poor, the unemployed, the young, the French, etc.
zero article
We use zero article:
- for uncountable nouns or plural nouns, unless we are referring to a specifi c case. Rob usually asks his best friend for advice. BUT The advice you gave me was really helpful.
- for most continents, countries, cities, lakes, streets, mountains, shops, restaurants, individual people. Scotland, Paris, London, Oxford Street, Ben Nevis
- for games, sports, languages and school subjects. We’re learning Italian. I love football.
- for some institutions, unless we are just visiting. We don’t have to go to school tomorrow, it’s a holiday. My mother is coming to the school to talk to the teacher.
- for some set expressions. on foot, by train, on holiday, at noon
REFERENCE
past tenses and time
expressions, used to/would
past simple
We use past simple for single or repeated fi nished events in the past.
We went to Paris two years ago.
Note the difference between the present perfect and past simple:
I've made four calls this morning. (= it is still the morning). I made four phone calls this morning. (= it is now later in the day).
past continuous
At 6 p.m. last night, I was playing basketball with my friends.
- for interrupted actions in the past
I was having a cup of coffee when my friend rang.
- with always to express irritation or criticism
As a child, he was always getting into trouble at school.
- for failed plans and unfulfilled expectations
Clare was hoping to pass her driving test, but she failed.
We can also use expressions such as be due to, be going to (future in the past), be thinking of (+ -ing ), be about to (+ infi nitive).
We were going to watch the live show, but then it was cancelled. Tony was due to arrive at around 6 p.m. I was thinking of planning a trip to the seaside for the weekend. Jake was about to leave when he bumped into an old friend.
past perfect
We use past perfect for actions, events and situations that happened before another past action.
By the time we arrived, the plane had already taken off.
past perfect continuous
We use past perfect continuous for an action that was happening over a period of time before another action in the past.
They had been walking for over an hour when they arrived.
time expressions
We can use as soon as , when/before, by the time, after with the past simple, past perfect and past perfect continuous.
As soon as they had fi nished breakfast, they went to the beach. After Sue had checked her phone, she switched it off. By the time they booked the tickets, the price had gone up a lot.
used to / would
For past habits or activities but only used to for past situations.
Her family used to live in a large house in the country. They would go/used to go horse-riding every day.
Note: get / be used to + -ing are different forms that refer to a present or past situation.
Stella works from home so she isn’t used to getting up early. Jon eventually got used to living in a different country.
third conditional + modals
We use the third conditional if + past perfect + might/mightn’t , could/couldn’t + have + past participle for unreal present situations caused by an unreal past situation. If it had snowed , it might have caused terrible traffic problems. We can also use the continuous tense in the if-clause or in the main clause. If you’ d been paying attention, you would have seen the red traffic light.
alternative conditional forms
unless
We generally use unless in fi rst and second conditional sentences instead of if not. She won’t enjoy her new school unless she makes some friends. I wouldn’t live in the city unless I had a good job.
when / if
We use when/if to talk about possible future actions. When we stay in the mountains, we often go walking. I’ll visit you if I have time. (perhaps I’ll have time)
in case + verb
We use in case + present simple to talk about things that we do so that we are prepared for a future situation. I’ll take some food in case we get hungry. We use in case + past simple to talk about the past. We took some water in case we got thirsty.
provided that / as long as / on condition that
We generally use provided that/as long as/on condition that in the fi rst conditional to talk about things that are or will only be possible if something else happens or is done. I’ll meet you in the town square on condition that we try out that new café.
I wish / if only
We use I wish/If only + past simple to talk about a present situation that we are not happy with. I wish we lived nearer the city centre. If only we knew more people here. We use I wish/If only + could for wishes about a present or future ability. If only I could sing. We use I wish/If only + would to complain about a present situation or annoying habit. If only they wouldn’t make so much noise. We use I wish/if only + past perfect to talk about a past situation that we regret but can’t change. I wish we hadn’t bought the farm. It’s been such hard work.
REFERENCE
conditionals
zero conditional
We use the zero conditional if/when + present simple + present simple to talk about things that are generally true or consequences of a situation or an action.
When I ’m in the city, I usually travel by tube. If I don’t have fresh air, I feel tired.
first conditional
We use the fi rst conditional if/when + present simple + will/may/ can/could/should + infi nitive for:
- describing possible future situations.
If she doesn’t like the town, she’ll move.
- making suggestions and giving advice.
If you’ re in town tomorrow, you could come and see me. If you don’t like the apartment block, you shouldn’t live there.
If you don’t pack your bags now, I’ll go without you.
If you buy that country cottage, I’ll visi t you in the summer.
We can use an imperative instead of will in the main clause.
If you get lost, call me.
The if-clause can come at the beginning of the sentence or after the main clause. If it comes after the main clause, you don’t need a comma.
If we had a bigger fl at, you could stay with us. You could stay with us if we had a bigger fl at.
second conditional
We use the second conditional if + past simple + would/could/ might + infi nitive for:
- unlikely or unreal situations in the present or future.
If I had more money, I’d move to the country. If the town square was bigger, we could have more concerts.
If I were you, I’ d avoid the tourist spots in summer.
third conditional
We use the third conditional if + past perfect + would/wouldn’t have + past participle for unreal situations in the past.
If they ’d stayed in the country, they wouldn’t have found work.
verb patterns: would rather/had
better/it’s time
We use would rather to express preferences:
- would rather + infinitive without to + than + infinitive without to. I’d rather leave now than stay until the end.
- would rather + person + verb in past tense. My parents would rather I spent less time on my computer.
- had better + infi nitive without to to give advice and express personal obligation. I’d better stop eating or I’ll feel sick. You’ d better listen to the teacher or you’ll get into trouble. We use it’s time + to infi nitive to talk about the favourable or appropriate time to do something. Pack your bags, it’s time to go home now. It’s time to do your homework. It’s time + person + verb in past tense can also be used to talk about something we should do. I’ve got a big test tomorrow so I think it’s time I went to bed. My dad’s so unfit at the moment, it’s time he did some exercise.
verb patterns with a change
in meaning: remember, stop,
regret, try, forget, go on
A few verbs can be used with either -ing or to infi nitive WITHOUT any change of meaning (e.g. begin , start , continue ). However, with some verbs, using the to infi nitive or the -ing form can completely change the meaning. Mark remembers leaving his football boots in the car. We’ll never forget winning the championship! I s topped reading magazines. Emma regrets buying this bag, it’s broken already. Try kicking the ball with your other foot. They went on playing until it got dark. Being in the school basketball team means practising twice aweek. I like playing team sports. Can you remember to close the door after you please? Natalie forgot to pass on the message. Katy stopped to take a photo. We regret to tell you that you didn’t win the competition. I’ll try to eat more healthily. After leaving school, he went on to teach golf. I’m sorry, I didn’t mean to interrupt you. I like to go running fi rst thing in the morning.
REFERENCE
infinitive and verb + -ing
the to infinitive
We use the to infi nitive:
- after certain verbs (e.g. afford, arrange, attempt, agree, appear, ask, begin, choose, continue, decide , expect , forget , hate , help , hope , intend , learn , like , love, manage , mean , need , offer , plan , prefer , prepare , promise , refuse , seem , start , stop , tend , want , would like , would love). The students managed to finish their work on time. They refused to leave.
- after certain verbs + object (e.g. advise , allow , ask , encourage , expect , forbid , force, get , help , instruct , invite , leave , like , need , oblige , order , permit , persuade , prefer , recommend , request , remind , teach , tell , tempt , want , warn). They warned him not to cycle too fast down the hill. The lifeguard asked the boy to leave the pool.
- after certain phrases to show purpose e.g. in order to , so as to
We left early so as to get home in time to watch the match on TV. You must practise regularly in order to become good at a sport.
- after adjectives (e.g. able, difficult, easy , exciting , expensive , fun , glad , good , happy , hard , impossible , interesting , likely , pleased , possible , sorry , willing). You should wear a coat as it’s likely to rain later. I’m pleased to see you’ve taken my advice.
the infinitive without to
We use the infi nitive without to after let and make.
I let my brother borrow my tennis racket. My mum made me clean my shoes before I went out.
Note: In the passive we use to after make.
He was made to tidy up after the mess he made.
the -ing form
We use the -ing form:
- as a noun when the verb is the object or subject of a sentence.
Swimming is one of the best forms of exercise.
- after all prepositions and phrasal verbs (e.g. capable of , interested in , keen on, good/bad at, bored with , fed up with , fond of , succeed in, think of , talk about , give up, look forward to , carry on , feel like). Julia isn’t very keen on watching sport on TV. I’m really looking forward to seeing my friends at the weekend.
- after certain verbs and phrases (e.g. admit , appreciate , avoid , begin, can’t help/can’t stand, consider, continue, delay, deny, discuss , dislike , enjoy , feel like , fi nish , hate , imagine , include , it’s a waste of time, involve, keep , like , love , mention , mind , miss , practise , prefer , recommend , spend time , suggest , there’s no point, worth). Karen doesn’t mind sharing with Rosie. There’s no point queuing for a ticket, they sold out an hour ago.
Note: Some verbs can take different structures e.g. recommend.
I recommend watching this fi lm about boxing, it’s great.
reported questions
direct speech reported speech Wh - questions What are you reading?
He asked me what I was reading. Yes/No questions
Do you enjoy fi ction?
I asked him if/whether he enjoyed fi ction.
Reported questions follow the same tense and word changes as reported statements. We don’t use a question mark or the auxiliary verb do/does/did. In wh - questions, we use the wh-word after ask. ’Where did you find the book?’ She asked me where I had found the book. For yes/no questions, we use if/whether after ask/wanted to know. I wanted to know whether they had seen the fi lm.
reporting verbs
Verbs followed by * can be used with more than one structure.
Verb + (object) + that + phrase She agreed that it was an exciting story. They promised us that they would come.
admit, advise, agree, boast, complain, deny, insist, persuade, promise, recommend, remind, suggest, tell, threaten, warn*
Verb + to infi nitive Luke threatened to tell them about it.
agree*, offer, promise, refuse, threaten
Verb + person + ( not ) to infi nitive We encouraged them to read more. I reminded him not to forget his homework.
advise, ask, encourage, invite, persuade, remind, tell, warn*
Verb + -ing Olivia denied sending the email.
admit, deny, recommend, suggest
Verb + (object) + preposition
- -ing The girls apologised for leaving early.
advise* sb against, agree* with sb on/about, apologise for, boast about, complain* to sb about, congratulate sb on, insist* on, warn* sb against
For reported requests and orders we use ask or tell/order (somebody) to do something. I asked Liam to leave. The director told the actors to be quiet.
REFERENCE
reported speech
We use reported speech to report what somebody else has said or asked. When the reporting verb is in the past tense the original verb usually moves back unless it can’t go back any further (*).
direct speech reported speech present simple past simple present continuous past continuous past simple past perfect simple past continuous past perfect continuous present perfect continuous past perfect continuous past perfect simple* past perfect simple past perfect continuous* past perfect continuous am/is/are going to was/were going to will would can could may/might might must/have to had to should/could/might/ought to/ would
no change
When the reporting verb is in the present, future, or present perfect (e.g. He says, has asked), the verb does not change.
‘I’ ve read the book.’ She says (that) she’s read the book.
If the sentence is still true, the verb can stay the same.
‘I write short stories.’ He said he writes short stories. (= he still writes short stories)
We use say and tell (and other verbs) to report statements. When we use tell , we need an object.
He said he had met a famous author. He told me he had met a famous author.
We often have to change the pronoun (e.g. I , he , we, etc.) and possessive adjectives (e.g. my , his , our , etc.)
‘We didn’t enjoy the fi lm.’ They said they hadn’t enjoyed the fi lm.
Time and place words can also change.
direct speech reported speech now then/at that time today/tonight that day/that night yesterday the day before/the previous day tomorrow the following day/the next day next week/month/year the following week/month/year last week/month/year the previous week/month/year the week/month/year before a week/month ago the previous week, the week before this/these that/those here there
permission: can / could, may / might
We can’t go outside school during break time. Note: for permission in the past, we use allowed to.
possibility: can , could , may , might (present)
Hugo may go to France in the summer but he’s not sure yet. can/can’t for general possibility (present) It can be difficult to keep calm under exam conditions. could/might + have + past participle (past) Alexia could have come top of the class if she had really tried.
prohibition: mustn’t , can’t (present); couldn’t ,
was not to (past)
I can’t see you tonight. My parents have said I’ve got to stay in. We were not to use our mobile phones during the lesson.
requests: would , could , can
Could you buy a loaf of bread while you’re out, please?
modals verbs + the passive
We use:
- present / future: modal verb + be + past participle. Application forms must be completed by the end of the month.
- past: modal verb + have + been + past participle. Suzanne’s unusually late. She may have been held up in traffic. Sam can’t have been invited to the party – Jen hates him!
linking phrases
in spite of / despite (concession and contrast)
- -ing We had a great time, in spite of/despite the weather being awful.
- noun In spite of/Despite the cost, my brother bought a new phone.
- the fact that + clause In spite of/Despite the fact that I love burgers, I don’t eat them every day.
not only … but also (emphasis)
Not only had they won, but they had also broken the record. In the simple present and simple past (except with the verb to be), we have to add in an auxiliary verb. Not only do I love meeting new people but I also enjoy learning new languages, Not only did the bus arrive late but it was also full.
such a / so (emphasis)
We use so + adjective/adverb (+ that). The fi lm was so boring that we left halfway through. We use such or such (a/an) + noun or adjective + noun (+ that). It was such a nice day that I decided to go to the park. We also use so + much/many/few/little and such + a lot of. We had so little energy that we decided to stay home.
REFERENCE
modal verbs
ability: can, be able to
We use can and could for ability in the present and past.
We can also use be able to for ability in the present, will/won’t be able to for future ability and was/wasn’t able to for past ability.
Jane can play the violin extremely well. I won’t be able to come to the party on Saturday.
Note: for specifi c occasions in the past, we use was/were able to, not could.
advice: should / shouldn’t , ought to
We use should and ought to for advice in the present and future.
I think you should go to the doctor about that cold. You ought to take it easy for a while.
We use should/shouldn’t have , ought to have/ought not to have + past participle to express criticism or regret about the past.
I shouldn’t have said that! We ought to have set off earlier.
certainty: will
The audition will go well, I’m sure of that.
deduction/speculation: may / might , must be ,
can’t be (present)
It must be difficult to study with all that noise from the street.
deduction/speculation: may / might have , must /
can’t have + past participle (past)
I wonder why they are late? They may have missed the bus. Your trip to Tokyo must have been really fascinating.
likelihood: should
Supper should be ready by now.
obligation: have (got) to , must , had to (past)
I must fi nish this project by Friday. We had to be completely silent during the exam.
lack of obligation: don’t / didn’t have to
They didn’t have to hand in their homework until Monday.
necessity/lack of necessity (present): need to /
needn’t , don’t need to
You don’t need to buy any spaghetti, I’ve got lots in the cupboard.
Note: need to/don’t need to but needn’t + infi nitive without to.
lack of necessity (past): didn’t need to do /
needn’t have done
The food didn’t need to be ready until 7 p.m. We needn’t have arrived so early – no one else was there.
