Gramática avanzada, Apuntes de Idioma Inglés

¡Descarga Gramática avanzada y más Apuntes en PDF de Idioma Inglés solo en Docsity!

r e f e r e n c e a n d

p r a c t i c e b o o k f o r

a d v a n c e d l e a r n e r s

o f E n g l i s h

M a r t i n H e w i n g s

PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE The Pitt Building,Trumpmgton Street, Cambridge CB2 1RP, United Kingdom

CAMBRIDGE, UNIVRRSITY PRESS The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA 10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh,VIC 3166, Australia Ruiz de Alarcon 13, 28014 Madrid, Spam Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa

http://www.cambridge.org

© Cambridge University Press 1999

First published 1999 Seventh printing 2002

Printed in Great Britain by Denirose Security Printing

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 0-521-49868-6 (with answers) ISBN 0-521-49869-4 (without answers)

Copyright The law allows a reader to make a single copy of part of a book for the purposes of private study. It does not allow the copying of entire books or the making of multiple copies of extracts. Written permission for any such copying must always be obtained from the publisher in advance.

Verbs: infinitives, -ing forms, etc. 36 Verbs with and without objects 37 Verb + to-infinitive or bare infinitive 38 Verb + to-infinitive or -ing? 39 Verb + -ing 40 Verb + wh-clause 41 Have/get something done; want something done, etc. 42 Verb + two objects

Reporting 43 Reporting people's words and thoughts 44 Reporting statements (1): that-clauses 45 Reporting statements (2): verb tense in that-clauses 46 Reporting statements (3): verb tense in the reporting clause; say and tell; etc. 47 Reporting offers, suggestions, orders, intentions, etc. 48 Should in that-clauses 49 Modal verbs in reporting

Nouns and compounds 50 Countable and uncountable nouns 51 Agreement between subject and verb (1) 52 Agreement between subject and verb (2) 53 The possessive form of nouns (Jane's mother) 54 Compound nouns (1) 55 Compound nouns (2)

Articles 56 A/an and one 57 The and a/an (1):'the only one' 58 The and a/an (2): 'things already known', etc. 59 Some and zero article with plural and uncountable nouns 60 The, zero article and a/an: 'things in general' 61 People and places 62 Holidays, times of the day, meals, etc.

Determiners and quantifiers 63 Some and any; something, somebody, etc. 64 Much (of), many (of), a lot of, lots (of), etc. 65 All (of), the whole (of), both (of) 66 Each (of), every, and all 67 No, none (of), and not any 68 Few, a few (of), little, a little (of), etc. 69 Quantifiers with and without 'of (some/some of; any/any of; etc.)

Relative clauses and other types of clause 70 Relative clauses (1) (The girl who I was talking about.) 71 Relative clauses (2) (Tom, who is only six, can speak three languages.) 72 Relative clauses (3): other relative pronouns 73 Relative clauses (4): prepositions in relative clauses 74 Participle clauses (-ing, -ed and being + -ed) 75 Participle clauses with adverbial meaning

IV

Pronouns, substitution and leaving out words 76 Reflexive pronouns: herself, himself, themselves, etc. 77 One and ones (There's my car - the green one.) 78 So (I think so; so I hear) 79 Do so; such 80 Leaving out words after auxiliary verbs 81 Leaving out to-infinitives (She didn't want to (go).)

Adjectives 82 Adjectives: position (1) 83 Gradable and ungradable adjectives; position (2) 84 Adjectives and adverbs 85 Participle adjectives (the losing ticket; the selected winners) 86 Prepositions after adjectives: afraid of/for, etc. 87 Adjectives + that-clause or to-infinitive 88 Comparison with adjectives (1): -er/more...; enough, sufficiently, too; etc. 89 Comparison with adjectives (2): as. ..as; so. ..as to; etc.

Adverbs and conjunctions 90 Position of adverbs 91 Adverbs of place, indefinite frequency, and time 92 Degree adverbs: very, too, extremely, quite, etc. 93 Comment adverbs; viewpoint adverbs; focus adverbs 94 Adverbial clauses of time (1): verb tense; before and until; hardly, etc. 95 Adverbial clauses of time (2): as, when and while 96 Giving reasons: as, because, because of, etc.; for and with 97 Purposes and results: in order to, so as to, etc. 98 Contrasts: although and though; even though/if; in spite of and despite 99 Conditional sentences (1): verb tenses 100 Conditional sentences (2) 101 If...not and unless; if and whether, etc. 102 After waiting..., before leaving..., besides owning..., etc. 103 Connecting ideas between and within sentences

Prepositions 104 At, in and on: prepositions of place 105 Across, along, over and through; above, over, below and under 106 Between, among; by, beside, etc. 107 At, in and on: prepositions of time 108 During, for, in, over, and throughout; by and until 109 Except (for), besides, apart from and but for 110 About and on; by and with

111 Prepositions after verbs (1) 112 Prepositions after verbs (2) 113 Prepositions after verbs (3) 114 Two- and three-word verbs: word order

THANKS

Many people have contributed in a variety of ways in the preparation of this book.

At Cambridge University Press I would like to thank Alison Sharpe, Barbara Thomas and

Geraldine Mark, all of whom have brought their professionalism and expertise to guiding and

shaping the book in its various stages. My special thanks are due to Jeanne McCarten, not only

for comments on early drafts, but for her constant support and encouragement.

Thanks also to Peter Ducker for the design, and to Peter Elliot and Amanda MacPhail for the

illustrations.

For providing a stimulating working environment, I would like to thank former colleagues at

the Learning Assistance Centre, University of Sydney, where the writing began in earnest, and

present colleagues at the English for International Students Unit, the University of Birmingham,

where the project was completed.

Many of my students at the University of Birmingham have worked on versions of the material

and I wish to thank in particular students on the Japanese Secondary School Teachers' course

between 1995 and 1998 who carefully and constructively evaluated sections of the work. I would

also like to thank the students and staff at the institutions all over the world where the material

was piloted.

Gerry Abbot, Annie Broadhead, David Crystal, Hugh Leburn, Laura Matthews, Michael

McCarthy, Stuart Redman and Anna Sikorzynaska made extensive comments on the manuscript.

I hope I have been able to reflect their many valuable suggestions in the finished book.

At home, Ann, Suzanne and David have all had a part to play in giving me time to write the

book, motivation, and examples.

VII

TO THE S T U D E N T

Who the book is for The book is intended for more advanced students of English. It is written mainly as a self-study book, but might also be used in class with a teacher. It revises some of the more difficult points of grammar that you will have already studied - such as when to use the, a/an or no article, and when to use the past simple or the present perfect - but will also introduce you to many more features of English grammar appropriate to an advanced level of study. How the book is organised There are 120 units in the book. Each one looks at a particular area of grammar. Some sections within each unit focus on the use of a grammatical pattern, such as will be + -ing (as in will be travelling). Others explore grammatical contrasts, such as whether to use would or used to to report past events, or when we use because or because of. The 120 units are grouped under a number of headings such as Tenses and Modals. You can find details of this in the Contents on pp. iii-vi. Each unit consists of two pages. On the left-hand page are explanations and examples; on the right are practice exercises. The letters next to each exercise show you which sections of the left- hand page you need to understand to do that exercise. You can check your answers in the Key on page 289. The Key also comments on some of the answers. Four Appendices tell you about passive verb form, quotation, irregular verbs and Typical Errors (see below). To help you find the information you need there is an Index at the back of the book. Although terms to describe grammar have been kept to a minimum some have been included, and you can find explanations of these terms in the Glossary on page 265. л On each left-hand page you will find a number of • symbols. These are included to show the kinds of mistakes that students often make concerning the grammar point being explained. These Typical Errors are given in Appendix 4 on page 246, together with a correction of the error, and an explanation where it is helpful. The symbol Й?я is used to show you when it might be useful to consult a dictionary. On the explanation pages it is placed next to lists of words that follow a particular grammatical pattern, and on the exercise pages it is used, for example, to show where it necessary to understand what particular words mean in order to do the exercise. Good English-English dictionaries include the Cambridge International Dictionary of English, the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, and the Collins Cobuild English Language Dictionary. How to use the book It is not necessary to work through the units in order. If you know what grammar points you have difficulty with, go straight to the units that deal with them. You can use the Index to help you find the relevant unit or units. If you are unsure which units to study, use the Study Guide on page 280. You can use the units in a number of ways. You might study the explanation and examples first, do the exercises on the opposite page, check your answers in the key, and then look again at the explanations if you made any mistakes. If you just want to revise a grammar point you think you already know, you could do the exercises first and then study the explanations for any you got wrong. You might of course simply use the book as a reference book without doing the exercises. A number of Additional Exercises are included for further practice of particular areas of grammar.

VIII

A d v a n c e d

G r a m m a r

i n U s e

rreseni simple ^i аи; anu

(I am doing) (1)

иимшшииь

We use the present simple to describe things that are always true, or situations that exist now and, as far as we know, will go on indefinitely:

• It takes me five minutes to get to school.
• Trees grow more quickly in summer than in winter. • Liz plays the violin brilliantly.

To talk about particular actions or events that have begun but have not ended at the time of speaking, we use the present continuous:

• The car isn't starting again.
• 'Who are you phoning?' 'I'm trying to get through to Joan.'
• The shop is so inefficient that many customers are taking their business elsewhere. We often use time expressions such as at the moment, at present, currently, just, and still to emphasise that the action or event is happening now:
• 'Have you done the shopping?' Tm just going.' Notice that the action or event may not be going on at the time of speaking:
• The police are talking to a number of people about the robbery.

We use the present simple to talk about habits or things that happen on a regular basis:

• I leave work at 5.30 most days.
• Each July we go to Turkey for a holiday. However, when we describe repeated actions or events that are happening at or around the time of speaking, we use the present continuous:
• Why are you jumping up and down?
• I'm hearing a lot of good reports about your work these days. We can use the present continuous or the present simple to describe something that we regularly do at a particular time. Compare:
• We usually watch the news on TV at 9.00. (= we start watching at 9.00)
• We're usually watching the news on TV at 9.00. (= we're already watching at 9.00)

We use the present continuous to imply that a situation is or may be temporary. Compare:

• Banks lend money to make a profit, (this is what usually happens)
• Banks are lending more money (these days) to encourage businesses to expand, (implies a temporary arrangement)
• She teaches Maths in a school in Bonn, (a permanent arrangement)
• She's teaching Maths in a school in Bonn, (implies that this is not, or may not be, permanent)

We often use the present simple with verbs that perform the action they describe:

• I admit I can't see as well as I used to. (= an admission)
• I refuse to believe that he didn't know the car was stolen. (= a refusal) Other verbs like this (sometimes called performative verbs) include accept, acknowledge, advise, apologise, assume, deny, guarantee, hope, inform, predict, promise, recommend, suggest, suppose, warn. We can use modals with performative verbs to make what we say more tentative or polite:.
• I would advise you to arrive two hours before the flight leaves.
• I'm afraid I have to inform you that your application for funding has been turned down.

Present smipel andpresentconntiuous( 2 )=> Present smipel forthefuture=> IffltXEl Presentcontniuousforthefuture=

b i n i p i u [i u u ; d i i u p i e s t M i L U U I I L I I I U U U S

( I a m d o i n g ) ( 2 )

We often prefer to use the present simple rather than the present continuous with verbs describing states:

• I really enjoy travelling.
• The group currently consists of five people, but we hope to get more members soon. Г Other common state verbs include agree, assume, believe, belong to, contain, cost, disagree, feel, hate, have, hope, know, like, look, love, own, prefer, realise, regret, resemble, smell, taste. However, we can use the present continuous with some state verbs when we want to emphasise that a situation is temporary, for a period of time around the present. Compare:
• I consider him to be extremely fortunate. (This is my view) and
• I'm considering taking early retirement. (This is something I'm thinking about now)
• The children love having Jean stay with us. (They love it when Jean stays) and
• The children are loving having Jean stay with us. (Jean is staying with us now) With some verbs used to describe a temporary state (e.g. ache, feel, hurt, look (= seem)), there is little difference in meaning when we use the present simple and present continuous:
• What's the matter with Bill? He looks / is looking awful. When have has a non-state meaning - for example when it means 'eat', 'undergo', 'take' or 'hold' - we can use the present continuous:
• 'What's that terrible noise?' 'The neighbours are having a party.' eWe use the present continuous when we talk about changes, developments, and trends:
• • The growing number of visitors is damaging the footpaths.
• I'm beginning to realise how difficult it is to be a teacher. When we tell a story or joke we often describe the main events using the present (or past) simple and longer, background events using the present (or past) continuous:
• She goes (or went) up to this man and looks (or looked) straight into his eyes. She's carrying (or was carrying) a bag full of shopping... We can also use the present simple and present continuous like this in commentaries (for example, on sports events) and in giving instructions:
• King serves to the left hand court and Adams makes a wonderful return. She's playing magnificent tennis in this match...
• You hold the can in one hand. Right, you're holding it in one hand; now you take off the lid with the other.

When we want to emphasise that something is done repeatedly, we can use the present continuous with words like always, constantly, continually, or forever. Often we do this when we want to show that we are unhappy about it, including our own behaviour:

• They're constantly having parties until the early hours of the morning. We use the past continuous (see Unit 6) in the same way:
• He was forever including me in his crazy schemes.

The present simple is used to report what we have heard or what we have read:

• This newspaper article explains why unemployment has been rising so quickly. We also use the present simple in spoken English in phrases such as I gather, I hear, I see, and I understand to introduce news that we have heard, read or seen (e.g. on television):
• I gather you're worried about the new job?
• The Prince is coming to visit, and I hear he's very rich.

Present simple and present continuous (1) = Present simple for the future => BlffiXFl

Ф ^ Д | Present continuous for the future = Present simple in reporting => IH'IHtH

E X E R C I S E S

UNIT

2.1 Complete the sentences with appropriate verbs. Use the same verb for each sentence in the pair. Choose the present continuous if possible; if not, use the present simple. (A) 1 a It us a fortune at the moment to send our daughter to dance classes. b It a fortune to fly first class to Japan. 2 a I sitting down at the end of a long day and reading a good book. b It's a wonderful book. I every moment of it. 3 a We've always wanted a house in the country, but we on where it should be. b When they agree with each other on so many important issues, I can't understand why they now on this relatively minor matter. 4 a With growing concerns about the environment, people to use recycled paper products, b He doesn't like publicity, and to stay firmly in the background. 5 a 'Can I speak to Dorothy?' 'She a shower. Can I take a message?' b My brother three children, all girls. 6 a Although he three cars, all of them are extremely old. b In the north of the country, fewer and fewer people the houses they live in.

2.2 Choose the present simple or present continuous for the verbs in these texts. (B) 1 Fletcher (pass) to Coles who (shoot) just over the bar. United (attack) much more in this half... 2 A man (come) home late one night after the office Christmas party. His wife (wait) for him, and she (say) to him... 3 Now that the rice (cook) you (chop up) the carrots and tomatoes and you (put) them in a dish...

2.3 Expand one of the sets of notes below to complete each dialogue. (C) continually/change/mind forever/moan/work forever/ask me/money constantly/criticise/driving always/complain/handwriting

1 A: I can't read this.B: You're always complaining about roy handwriting. 2 A: Can I borrow £Ю?в: You're... 3 A: That was a dangerous thing to do!g. You're... 4 A: I think I'll stay here after all.B: You're... 5 A: I had a bad day at the office again.g. You're...

2.4 How might you report the news in these headlines using the phrases given? (D)

MORE CASH FOR HEALTH SERVICE

I see... I understand. I gather... It says here...

Example: I see that tlie Queen's going to visit India, next spring.

EXERCISES

Choose a verb with either the present perfect or past simple for these sentences. (A & E) agree appear continue disappear move reach show solve write

UNIT

3.

1 Research ...li**..s^pw.!?... that cycling can help patients overcome their illnesses. 2 The rabbit just in my garden one day last week. 3 With this promotion, I feel that I a turning point in my career. 4 Oh, no! My car! 5 Quite early in the negotiations, they to lower the prices. 6 In 1788 he his last great work in Vienna. 7 There's not much more to do, now that we the main problem. 8 Throughout the summer of 1980 Malcolm to divide his time between London and New York. 9 When he was 13, his parents to the United States.

3.2 Suggest a verb that can complete both sentences in each pair. Use either the present perfect or the past simple. Use L to add any words outside the space. (В, Е &F) 1 a The price of houses dramatically in recent years. b Unemployment every year until 1985 and then started to fall. 2 a At his wedding he a green suit and red tie. b These are the glasses I ever since I was 30. 3 a The company many setbacks in its 50-year history, but it is now flourishing. b Few of the trees in our village the storms during the winter of 1991. 4 a This his home for over 20 years and he doesn't want to leave it. b When I picked up the coffee I surprised to find it that it was cold. 5 a So far it's been so cold that we in the house all day. b We with Mike and Sue last weekend. 6 a I last you in Beijing three years ago. b I never anyone play so well in my whole life.

3.3 Find the following: (i) three sentences that are incorrect; (ii) three sentences with the present perfect which could also have the past simple (consider the difference in meaning); (Hi) three sentences where only the present perfect is correct. (A-G) 1 Jane has agreed to lend us her car. (II) 2 Do you know how many people have walked on the moon? 3 Phone for an ambulance. I think Keith's broken his arm. 4 In his twenties, Lawrence has spent many years travelling around Spain. 5 The Vikings have established a settlement at what is now York, in the north of England. 6 The house looks so much bigger now that we've painted the walls in brighter colours. 7 My brother has gone into town to buy some new shoes. 8 The Earth has been formed about 4,500 million years ago. 9 I've worked in Malaysia for three years.

L j J d l ICUL ^1 l l d V C U U I I G J d l l U \Jubl

( I d i d ) ( 2 )

We use the present perfect when we talk about something that happened in a period of time up to the present. We use the past simple to talk about something that happened at a particular, finished time in the past. Compare:

• Science has made many major advances this century, and
• Scientists made some fundamental discoveries in the 18th century.
• He puts to good use things that other people have thrown away, and
• I threw away most of my old books when I moved house. When we report that someone has recently invented, produced, discovered or written something we use the present perfect. When we talk about something that was invented, etc. in the more distant past we use the past simple. Compare:
• Scientist have discovered that, all over the world, millions of frogs and toads are dying.
• It is often said that Hernan Cortes 'discovered' Mexico in 1519.
• Two schoolchildren have invented a device for moving large objects up flights of stairs.
• Chinese craftsmen invented both paper and printing. Sometimes it makes very little difference to the main sense of the sentence if we think of something happening in a period of time up to the present or at a particular, finished time in the past:
• The research is now complete and the experiment was {or has been) a success.
• Does it concern you that you failed {or have failed) the test?
• I'm sure I read {or I have read) somewhere that he died in a plane crash.

We can use either the present perfect or the past simple to talk about repeated actions or events. If we use the present perfect, we often suggest that the action or event might happen again. Sometimes we emphasise this with phrases such as so far and up to now (see Unit 5). If we use the past simple, it suggests that it is finished and won't happen again. Compare:

• Timson has made 13 films and I think her latest is the best, and
• Timson made 13 films before she was tragically killed in a car accident.
• Lee has represented his country on many occasions, and hopes to go on to compete in the next Olympics, and
• Lee represented his country on many occasions, but was forced to retire after an injury.

We can use both the present perfect and the past simple to talk about states. We use the present perfect to talk about a state that existed in the past and still exists now, and we use the past simple if the state no longer exists. Compare:

• I have known him most of my working life. (I am still working) and
• I knew him when we were both working in Rome.
• We have belonged to the tennis club since we moved here. (We still belong to it.) and
• We belonged to the tennis club in the village we used to live in.

In news reports, you will often read or hear events introduced with the present perfect, and then the past simple is used to give the details:

The film star Jim Cooper has died of cancer. He was 68 and lived in Texas...'

'• 'The US space shuttle Atlantis has returned safely to earth. It landed in Florida this morning...'

Present perfect and past simple (1) and (3) (^) Past continuous and past simple

'A teacher from Oslo has N become the first woman to cross the Antarctic alone. It took her 42 days to make the crossing with her dog team..."/

p e l I C U L [i n a v e u u n c ; a n u p a s t d i m

( I d i d ) ( 3 ) : a d v e r b s u s e d w i t h t h e s e t e n s e s

Some time adverbs that connect the past to the present are often used with the present perfect:

• Don't disturb Amy. She's just gone to sleep, (not ...she just went to sleep.)
• Have you seen Robert lately} (not Did you see...) Other time adverbs like this include already, since (last week), so far, still, up to now, yet. When we use time adverbs that talk about finished periods of time we use the past simple rather than the present perfect:
• Marie died, at the age of 86, in 1964. (not Marie has died...) Other time adverbs like this include (a month) ago, at (3 o'clock), last (week, month), on (Monday), once (= at some time in the past), then, yesterday. We often use before, for, and recently with the present perfect and also the past simple. For example:

...with present perfect

• Nothing like this has happened before.
• We've had the dishwasher for three years. (= we have still got it)
• A new school has recently opened in New Road.

...with past simple

• Why didn't you ask me before}
• We had the car for six years. (= we no longer have it)
• I saw Dave recently.

Time adverbs that refer to the present, such as today, this morning/week/month, can also be used with either the present perfect or past simple. If we see today etc. as a past, completed period of time, then we use the past simple; if we see today, etc. as a period including the present moment, then we use the present perfect. Compare:

• I didn't shave today (= the usual time has passed; suggests I will not shave today) and
• I haven't shaved today. (= today is not finished; I may shave later or may not)
• I wrote three letters this morning. (= the morning is over) and
• I've written three letters this morning. (= it is still morning)

We use since to talk about a period that started at some point in the past and continues until the present time. This is why we often use since with the present perfect:

• Since 1990 I have lived in a small house near the coast.
• Tom has been ill since Christmas. In a sentence which includes a smce-clause, the usual pattern is for the smce-clause to contain a past simple, and the main clause to contain a present perfect:
• Since Mr Hassan became president, both taxes and unemployment **have increased.
• I haven't been able** to play tennis since I broke my arm. However, we can use a present perfect in the swce-clause if the two situations described in the main and s/nce-clause extend until the present:
• Since I've lived here, I haven't seen my neighbours.

We use the present perfect with ever and never to emphasise that we are talking about the whole of a period of time up until the present:

• It's one of the most magnificent views I have ever seen. (= in my whole life)
• I've never had any problems with my car. (= at any time since I bought it) We use the past simple with ever and never to talk about a completed period in the past:
• When he was young, he never bothered too much about his appearance.

Present perfect and past simple (1) and (2): Since: reasons => |ШШЛ

Past continuous and past simple =

UNIT

E X E R C I S E S 5

5.1 Put а У or correct the sentences. (A) 1 Terry drove to Glasgow last week to visit his father. 2 I have known a woman once who had sixteen cats. 3 Ann Baker already did four radio interviews about her new book. 4 Julia felt hungry. Then she has remembered the salad in the fridge. 5 I'll introduce you to Dr Davies - or have you met her before? 6 We've had enormous problems recently with ants in the kitchen. We just can't get rid of them. 7 I have talked to her yesterday about doing the work. 8 They still live in the small house they have bought 30 years ago. 9 You have not yet explained clearly what you want me to do. 10 We lived in Newcastle for three years now and like it a lot.

5.2 Complete these sentences with an appropriate verb. Use either the present perfect or past simple. (B&C) 1 Maria hasn't wanted to drive since she her car. 2 I really hard this morning. Another two shelves to put up and then I think I'll have lunch. 3 Since the eruption , all the villages on the slopes of the volcano have been evacuated. 4 So far this week there three burglaries in our street. 5 I a committee meeting since 1986, so I don't want to miss the one today. 6 It was so hot today that I shorts and a T-shirt at work. 7 A great deal since I last spoke to you. 8 We £200 on food this month already. 9 Since he the girl from the frozen pond, he has been on TV and in the newspapers almost every day.

5.3 Choose one of these verbs and write Have you ever... or Did you ever... at the beginning of these questions. (D) be eat have hear learn meet talk think 1 .Жуе-..HOw...ever...been.. i (^) n a cave? 2 durian (= a fruit) when you lived in Malaysia?

Malaysia *— fc^ _S~7t-T-_ ——_ durian

3 somebody really famous? 4 what it must be like to be a cat? 5 to play a musical instrument as a child? 6 to Michael when you worked in the same company? 7 a song called 'Close to the Edge'? 8 a pet when you were young? 11