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Asignatura obligatoria (2º cuatrimestre 2011-12) Grado en Estudios Ingleses JUAN SANTANA LARIO BELÉN SORIA CLIVILLÉS
Unit 4 Coordination and subordination
Set readings Suggested readings
4.1. Introduction Quirk et al. (1985) sections 13 .2-21, 14.1-4, 14.37- 41 4.2. Coordination Quirk et al. (1985) sections 13.22- 42 4.3. Subordination 4.3.1. Nominal clauses 4.3.2. Adverbial clauses
Quirk et al. (1985) sections 14.5-10, 15.1- 2 Quirk et al. (1985) sections 3 - 16 Quirk et al. (1985) sections 18 - 22
Quirk et al. (1985) sections 15.24- 52
4.1. Introduction [Cf. Quirk et al. 1985: 13 .2-21, 14.1-4, 14.37- 41 ]
So far: simple clauses/sentences: 1 clause with constituents (S, O, A, etc) realized by phrases. From now on: syntactic ways of expanding simple clauses: combinations of clauses.
Traditional usage: compound and complex sentences (or paratactic vs. hypotactic connection) Paratactic connection: equal status of elements: Coordination: Syndetic e.g. John bought the tickets and Mary parked the car Asyndectic e.g. John bought the tickets; Mary parked the car Apposition: e.g. He has a summer job with a travel agency, guiding parties of tourists. Quotation: e.g. She said: “Love me or leave me” Hypotactic connection: unequal status of elements. One depends on the other (which usually means that the dependent or subordinate element is a constituent within the superordinate one): Sub. Cl as S e.g. Why he resigned was never discovered Sub. Cl as O e.g. She explained that the machine was out of order Sub. Cl as A e.g. While John bought the tickets , Mary parked the car
An alternative view, the “clause complex”:
Fig. 1. The clause complex
4.2. Coordination
The linking of units (words, phrases, clauses, etc.) at the same level of structure: e.g. gin and tonic my brother and your sister I mop the floor and you do the dishes. We’ll concentrate on clause coordination.
Types of coordination: Asyndetic: no explicit marker Syndetic: indicated by ‘coordinating conjunctions’: and, or, but
Asignatura obligatoria (2º cuatrimestre 2011-12) Grado en Estudios Ingleses JUAN SANTANA LARIO BELÉN SORIA CLIVILLÉS
Differences between coordinators and subordinators and conjuncts: (a)Coordinators are restricted to clause-initial position, subordinators too but not conjuncts e.g. The car skidded and the lorry couldn't avoid it The car skidded; the lorry, nevertheless, could avoid it
(b)Coordinated clauses are sequentially fixed; true also for conjuncts, not for subordinators. e.g. *Nevertheless the lorry could avoid it, the car skidded *And the lorry couldn't avoid it, the car skidded Although the car skidded, the lorry could avoid it
(c)Coordinators are not preceded by a conjunction while subordinators and conjuncts can e.g. The car nearly crashed, and yet the driver didn't slow down The driver didn't slow down because he was in a hurry and because he was slightly drunk
(d)Coordinators can link clause constituents (so can the conjuncts yet, so, then ) e.g. He could have swerved the wheel or braked but didn't do either, then ran over a cat
(e)Coordinators can link subordinate clauses e.g. The police arrested the driver before he reached the border but after he had driven into a herd of sheep
(f)Coordinators can link more than two clauses e.g. You can take a train or you can drive your our car, or you can walk
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Coordinators Central and, or +
Peripheral but − Conjuncts Peripheral Yet, so, nor + −
Central However, therefore^ − Subordinators Peripheral For, so that +
Central if, because − Table 1. Conjunctions (coordinating, subordinating vs. conjuncts)
Semantic implications of the use of coordinators: AND: Most general coordinator (in meaning and use). The pragmatic-logico-sematic implications of the combination or two or more clauses by and depend on a number of factors: prepositional content of conjoined clauses, speakers’ presuppositions, knowledge of the world. Adverbials (conjuncts) are frequently used to specify connection). (Pure) Addition: e.g. He has long hair and he often wears a leather jacket Cause / effect-result-consequence: e.g. We had left the tickets at home, and (so/therefore) there was nothing we could do. Temporal sequence: e.g. They spread the cloth on the glass and (then) began unpacking the picnic things Contrast: e.g. Robert is rather tall and (in contrast) his brother is rather short Concession: e.g. He criticizes his colleagues and (yet) relies on them for support Condition: e.g. You might have an accident and (in that case / then) who would rescue you? Say that again and you are dead! Comparison/similarity: e.g. He likes dance music and so does she Explanation: e.g. There’s one thing you must realize and that is that you can’t always get what you want
Asignatura obligatoria (2º cuatrimestre 2011-12) Grado en Estudios Ingleses JUAN SANTANA LARIO BELÉN SORIA CLIVILLÉS
Classification of subordinate clauses according to structural and functional criteria:
4.3.1. NOMINAL CLAUSES
Table 2. Types of subordinate nominal clauses Notes:
- that is frequently omitted; omission/retention of that is not random but subject to a number of factors: Register factors: Conversation: typical omission Academic prose: omission is unusual Grammatical factors favouring omission: the that -cl functions as O, C, or extraposed S e.g. I think I’ll make a shopping list today the main clause verb is say/think/know e.g. You said you wouldn’t. the subject of the main and that -cl. are co-referential e.g. It’s a pity you always complain cf. That you always complain is a pity Grammatical factors favouring retention: That -cl is coordinated to another clause e.g. Everybody could see that something was about to happen and that there was nothing we could do Main clause is passive e.g. I was told that those who support the government’s view had been excluded; It was reported that the President would resign Intervening material between main verb and that -cl: e.g. Everybody could see, I believe, that the bullfighter was terrified; They had warned him that the bull was dangerous
- Subject that -cl. are frequently extraposed and replaced in initial position by an anticipatory it (‘end-weight principle’): Factors favouring extraposition: Main clause is exclamatory: extraposition is obligatory: e.g. How strange it is that no one has complained! Main clause is interrogative or passive: extraposition is very likely: e.g. Is it possible that they reach an agreement? , It was thought that they would
Object that -cl. are normally extraposed when accompanied by a CO e.g. I find it strange that no one has shown up yet
TYPE OF NOMINAL CLAUSE
FUNCTIONS
S OD OI CS CO App AdjC PreC That -clause^1 +^2 + − + − + + − Wh - Relative clause^3 + + +^4 +? - + + Interrogative clause ( yes/ no and wh- )^3 + + − + − + + + Exclamative clause + + − − − − + + To -infinite clause^5 + + − + − + + −
- ing clause^5 + + − + + + + +
Asignatura obligatoria (2º cuatrimestre 2011-12) Grado en Estudios Ingleses JUAN SANTANA LARIO BELÉN SORIA CLIVILLÉS
- Wh- relative and wh -interrogative clauses are easily confused since they share the same subordinatiors ( wh - words: who, what, when, etc.). Clues to distinguish them: a) Wh- inter. contain a gap of unknown information represented by the wh -element and the main clause expresses some concern with supplying the missing information e.g. Do you know what they eat for breakfast? ) Wh- rel do not contain a gap in information e.g. I always eat what I like Cf. Inter. e.g. What caused the accident is to be discovered Rel. e.g. What caused the accident was an electrical fault Inter. e.g. Who caused the accident is a complete mystery Rel. e.g. Whoever caused the accident was very careless
b) In wh -inter. the wh -word is normally stressed e.g. I wonder ‘who stole my cheese
c) When wh- rel. function as Subject they show agreement with verb e.g. What I have is yours What were left behind were five empty bottles
d) Wh -interr. are always singular: e.g. Which movie I prefer is not your business Which movies I saw is not your business
e) In wh -rel prepositions are always at the end e.g. Whoever you vote for will disappoint you cf. *For whoever…
Wh- inter. allow a choice in the placement of the preposition: e.g. Who(m) I will vote for is my business For whom I will vote is my business
f) In wh -rel who, whom and which only appear with a small semantic class of verbs: choose, like, please, want, wish. There are no restrictions in wh -inter. g) -ever forms tend to appear only in wh -rel e.g. I read whatever I could find about Malcolm-X cf. ?? She asked me whatever was doing
Some nominal wh -clauses are genuinely ambiguous and will allow both a relative and an interrogative interpretation: e.g. Do you remember when we got lost? Rel. interpretation: Do you remember that occasion, how scared we were, etc.? Inter. interpretation: Do you remember the date?
- Nominal clauses (actually, all clauses) are semantically abstract: they represent ‘propositions’, ‘states of affairs’ rather than concrete objects, entities, etc., which are typically represented by NPs: that’s why they do not normally function as OI, since the OI typically represents a concrete, animate entity). The fact that nominal wh-relative clauses are the only ones that appear with this function is due to their quasi-NP character.
- Although to -inf and - ing clauses (and some wh -clauses: those introduced by when, where, how, why ) are classified here as ‘nominal’ clauses (since they perform typical nominal functions: S, O, etc.) they should also be included among adverbial clauses since they can also have adverbial functions: e.g. I did it to please her We had an accident driving home
Asignatura obligatoria (2º cuatrimestre 2011-12) Grado en Estudios Ingleses JUAN SANTANA LARIO BELÉN SORIA CLIVILLÉS
(ii)Place Linkers: where, wherever e.g. Leave your hat wherever you can Not all clauses introduced by these linkers are A of place e.g. Home is where the heart is (Nominal relative clause as Cs) Wherever you go, you find Japanese (Adverbial universal concessive clause) (iii)Condition: Positive condition: if, provided that, as long as, in the event of Negative condition: unless, but for, without Concessive condition: even if, although, in spite of, without Direct condition: the situation in the main clause is contingent on the situation in the subordinate clause. (syntactically, these are adjuncts). Possible (or ‘open’): IF + PRESENT (SHOULD)/[IMPERATIVE/FUTURE] e.g. If you want to park here, pay the parking meter If we should miss the train, we'll be late Hypothetical: what is said in the main clause is imaginary consequence of the fact expressed in the if-clause. IF + SIMPLE PAST/CONDITIONAL e.g. If we caught that train, we might get there in time If you won the pools, you wouldn't know what to do with the money Contrary to present facts : IF + PAST PERFECT/CONDITIONAL PERFECT e.g. If you had listened to my advice, you wouldn't have had an accident Indirect condition: the condition is not related to the situation in the main clause, but to the implicit speech act of the utterance e.g. She is too clever, if I may so (syntactically, these are style disjuncts). Rhetorical condition: not real conditions but implicit strong assertions e.g. If they’re Irish , I’m the Pope (Implied assertion: ‘ They are not Irish’ )
(iv)Concession: The situation in the main clause is unexpected in the light of the situation in the concessive clause. In conditional sentences we have a potential meaning: one set of circumstances depends on the other. In concessive clauses the feature is reality e.g. Though he is ill, he will come to class We establish a sort of contrast between two statements. In conditional sentences we can use and/or , in concessives, but. In the former we can find a reinforcing element: if... then. Even if/though is between condition and contrast. If... at least/at any rate is closer to concession.
Subordinators: although, though, while, whereas, even though, even if
Alternative and Universal Conditional/Concessive clauses: Alternative: whether … or (whether), no matter whether e.g. Whether you like it or not, I’m leaving Universal- Wh -element + - ever e.g. Don't believe her, whatever she says Whatever is stated in the main clause is true in any of the conditions covered by the subordinate clause: e.g. However he tries, he never succeeds No matter how I try, I can't float
Asignatura obligatoria (2º cuatrimestre 2011-12) Grado en Estudios Ingleses JUAN SANTANA LARIO BELÉN SORIA CLIVILLÉS
(v)Cause, reason and circumstance: e.g. I'll lend him the money because he is your friend Direct Reason: because (syntactically, these are Adjuncts) Indirect Reason (or ‘circumstance’): since, as (syntactically, these are Disjuncts) A text transformation to distinguish them is to make them the focus of a cleft sentence: e.g. He should be punished [ because he behaved naughtily ] It is because he behaved naughtily that he should be punished As/since are usually placed at the beginning of the sentence. Since focuses more emphatically on the cause than as. There are also compound subordinators: considering that, now that, in that, in as much as e.g. Forgive them in as much as they are young
Semantic subtypes: a) Cause and effect: inherent objective connection in the real world between situation in main and subordinate clause e.g. She knows so much because she reads a lot b) Reason and consequence: speaker’s inference of a connection e.g. She watered the flowers because they were dry c) Motivation and result: intention of an animate being with a subsequent result e.g. You’ll help me because you’re my friend d) Circumstances and consequence e.g. Since the weather has improved , we can take a walk tomorrow These adverbial meanings can also be realised by non-finite or verbless clauses e.g. Being a teacher, I believe in higher standards of education (reason and cause) (vi) Purpose and result Purpose: (syntactically, these are adjuncts) a)non-finite: to-infinitive clauses e.g. We are working hard to improve food production Not to be confused with objects realized by to-inf. e.g. We want to improve food production Subordinators: so as to, in order to b)finite: so that, in order that, lest (+modal verb in the subordinate) the order is not fixed e.g. He shut the window so that the neighbours wouldn't hear the noise Result: (syntactically, these are disjuncts) Same linkers as in purpose clauses, but there is no modal and the subordinate is always postponed e.g. He shut the windows, so that the neighbours didn't hear
MINOR ADVERBIAL CLAUSES Manner – comparison : as, as if/though, like, much as , also the way that, in a way that e.g. We did it as we had been taught He speaks as his father does Is she often rude and cross like she's been this last month? Hypothetical comparison: They ran as if their lives depended on it Proportion – preference : semantic implication of proportion: circumstances are compared in terms of equivalent tendencies: the more (- er )... the more (- er ) e.g. As time went on, things got worse Preference: prefer, would rather, had sooner, rather than ( to inf ./O/-ing ) e.g. He prefers to stay in a flat to living in a cottage I'd sooner pay than do any of these things Hypothetical preference: same subject e.g. I'd rather go to "Unforgiven" different subject e.g. I'd rather you came with me
Contrast: whereas, while, whilst e.g. I teach physics, while she teaches chemistry
