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IF-CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE MEANING
General conditions ("Zero" Conditional)
Simple present Simple present General laws; things that are always true Possible conditions (1st Conditional)
Simple present WILL + V (also CAN, MAY, MUST & imperatives)
Probable future result
Hypothetical conditions (2nd Conmditional)
Simple past WOULD + V (also COULD / MIGHT)
Imaginary situation in the present or future
Impossible conditions (3rd Conditional)
Past Perfect WOULD HAVE + pp (also COULD / MIGHT)
Imaginary situation in the past UNLESS can be used with the meaning " IF ... NOT " in general and possible conditions only. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. Types 0, 1, 2 & 3 Other structures As long as, providing (or provided that) and on condition: these expressions mean only if and can be used with the same verb forms as conditional sentences: In Spain you can drive a car as long as you are 18 Inversion of subject and verb: this structure is very common in formal English in conditional sentences with should and the past perfect. When inversion is used, we omit if: Had I known about the transport strike, I would have taken my car. Should you meet Sheila, tell her the meeting has been postponed. PASSIVE VOICE
- A passive verb form is a form of BE + past participle.
- When the subject is the person or thing doing the action (the agent) we use an active verb. When the subject is not the agent, then the verb is passive: Columbus discovered America - America was discovered by Columbus
- In a passive sentence, when we want to say who or what did the action, we use BY: They were questioned by the police
- We do not mention the agent when:
- the agent does not add any new information
- the agent is not important
- it is difficult to say who the agent is
- We can use empty subjects (you, they, people, someone) instead of the passive, especially in conversation: A new theatre is being opened - They are opening a new theatre
- We use the passive both in speech and writing, but it is more common in writing. We use it to describe activities in industry, science and technology (processes), official rules and news reports.
- We sometimes use GET in the passive rather than BE, mainly in informal English, to emphazise change. We often use it for something happening by accident, unexpectedly or in an unplanned way: Our car got damaged on our way home. We also use GET in idiomatic expressions like get dressed/married... Special Passive Patterns
- In an active sentence a verb of giving can have two different patterns after it: She gave us a present / She gave a present to us. Both "us" (but using the subject pronoun) and "a present" can be the subject of a passive sentence. It is quite normal in English for the person receiving something to be the subject in a passive sentence. Verbs in this pattern are: give, send, pay, lend, hand, sell, promise, show, offer, teach, owe, award, grant, allow, leave (in a will) and feed.
- We can use a special pattern with verbs of reporting when we do not need to know who is doing the reporting: People say taxes will increase - It is said that taxes will increase We often use this pattern with IT + BE + SAID (THAT) ... in news reports. Verbs in this pattern are: say, report, mention, announce, think, believe, understand, agree, decide, know, find, expect, hope, regret, fear, intend and arrange.
- We can also use a pattern with an infinitive: People said he would win a prize - He was said to win a prize People said he won a prize - He was said to have won a prize People said he was planning a new scheme - He was said to be planning a new scheme In this pattern we can use: say, report, think, believe, understand, know, find, expect and intend.
- HAVE/GET SOMETHING DONE: We use HAVE or GET (more informal) in a passive pattern which means to arrange for someone to do something for you as a professional service: We had/got our house painted. Both have and get are ordinary verbs, so they can have an auxiliary when necessary: When did you have/get your house painted? We can use have in this pattern with the meaning "experience something", often something unpleasant: We had our house broken into.
- TO BE DONE and BEING DONE: a) Some verbs take a to-infinitive (want to do...) and some take an -ing form (enjoy doing...). After a preposition we use an -ing form (interested in doing...). The to-infinitive or -ing form can be active or passive: I want to meet them at the airport - I want to be met at the airport I don't like people laughing at me - I don't like being laughed at
Demonstratives this / that ............................ the B) TENSE CHANGE: Tense change depends on whether the introductory verb is present or past.
- If the introductory verb is present, there is no tense change.
- If the introductory verb is past, there is often a tense change. If the statement is up to date when we report it, we can leave the same tense or change it. We change the tense if we think the statement may be untrue. In news reports, the tense usually changes.
Direct Speech Reported Speech Direct Speech Reported Speech Simple Present ......... Simple Past WILL ...................... WOULD Present Continuous .. Past Continuous CAN ....................... COULD Simple Past ............. Past Perf/S. Past* MAY ...................... MIGHT Past Continuous ...... Past Perf/Past Cont.* MUST .................... HAD TO Present Perfect ........ Past Perfect WOULD NO CHANGE Past Perfect ............ Past Perfect COULD MIGHT SHOULD OUGHT TO
Reported staments: A) Reporting verbs: SAY, TELL, ANNOUNCE, EXCLAIM,... B) Introduced by THAT (it can be omitted) C) Pronoun, verb and adverb change Reported questions A) Reporting verbs: ASK, WONDER, WANT TO KNOW B) WH-QUESTIONS: introduced by an INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN (it cannot be omitted) C) YES/NO QUESIONS: introduced by IF or WHETHER (they cannot be omitted) D) Pronoun, verb and adverb change.Word order changes E) EMBEDDED QUESTIONS: Could you tell me ...? Do you know ...? Reported functions (requests, orders, offers, ...) A) REQUESTS:
- Reporting verb: ASK, BEG ...
- Indirect Object + TO-INFINITIVE / NOT TO-INFINITIVE
B) ORDERS:
- Reporting verbs: TELL, ORDER, COMMAND ...
- Indirect Object + TO-INFINITIVE / NOT TO-INFINITIVE
C) OFFERS, SUGGESTIONS ... PROMISEOFFER AGREE THREATENREFUSE REMINDADVISE INVITE
D) PROMISE THAT, AGREE THAT ... PROMISEAGREE REMIND ADVISEWARN ADMITINSIST
RELATIVE CLAUSES
Defining Relative Clauses They describe the preceding noun and give essential information about the noun. They are introduced by a relative pronoun which can be replaced by THAT or even omitted (except when the relative pronoun is subject of the clause or is in the possessive case). They are not separated by commas.
People as: subject WHO / THAT The man WHO / THAT reported the crime has beengiven a reward object (of a verb) WHO / THAT / -- The man (WHO / THAT) I saw at the party isJanet's father object (of apreposition) WHO / THAT / -- The man (WHO / THAT) I was talking TO is workingfor Peter Notice that the preposition moves to the end of the clause. possessive WHOSE The film is about a man WHOSE children arekidnapped Things as: subject WHICH / THAT The cup WHICH / THAT is on the table is full of sugar object (of a verb) WHICH / THAT / -- The cup (WHICH / THAT) I bought in Venice is onthe table
They have the same form as non-defining relative clauses. They do not describe a noun but continue the story. They are introduced by who, which and whose, which can be replaced by and or but. They are usually placed after the object of the main verb or after the preposition + noun structure: I told Jane, WHO said it wasn't her business (BUT she said it wasn't her business) We went with John, WHOSE car broke down before we got there (BUT his car broke down before we got there) He drank a lot of whisky, WHICH made him ill (AND it made him ill) WHICH can also stand for a whole sentence: They asked me to go away, WHICH was very rude They said it was his fault, WHICH wasn't true
MODAL VERBS
MEANING TIME REFERENCE
PRESENT / FUTURE PAST
Ability can^ could was / were able to managed to Possibility may , might , could would/might/could (didn't actually happen) + have + pp (don't know whether it happened^ may/might/could^ + have + pp or not) Probability will --- Certainty must , can't must / can't + have + pp Obligation must , have to had to Necessity have to, need to, need had to / didn't have to didn't need to needn't have + pp Advice should , ought to , had better should /ought to (regret) + have + pp Requests can ,^ could^ --- Would you mind + -ing ...? Permission can , could , may --- Do you mind if I ...? Offers Shall I ...? --- Suggestions Shall we ...? --- Let's + V How about + -ing ...? Why don't we ...?
CONNECTORS
Contra
st In spite of / Despite Link two contrasting ideas. Followed by a noun phrase Although / (Even) though
Link two contrasting ideas. Followed by a sentence. However Nevertheless Still / Yet Even so On the contrary In contrast
Introduce a new idea which marks a contrast with previously stated ideas. Used after a strong pause and separated from the sentence they introduce by a comma.
On the one hand ... on the other hand
Links two contrasting ideas / paragraphs. In contrast to Contrary to
Link two contrasting ideas. Followed by a noun phrase. whereas Link two contrasting ideas. Not separated by commas. Reason and cause Because As Since Seeing that
Introduce a sentence. Subordinate sentences introduced by BECAUSE always appear in final position.
Because of On account of Owing to Due to
Introduce a noun phrase.
Purpose In order to (to) So as to
Introduce an infinitive of purpose. In order that So that
Introduce a sentence usually with COULD.
Consequence Consequently As a consequence As a result Therefore
Used after a strong pause and separated from the sentences they introduce by a comma.
As a consequence of As a result of
Followed by a noun phrase. So Introduces a sentence. No commas.
Addition MoreoverFurthermore In addition
Used after a strong pause and separated from the sentences theyintroduce by a comma.
