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Sgeun etsduios raleziaods por una Uivenrsdiad Ignlsea,no ipmotra el odren en el que las ltears etsen ecsritas,la uicna csoa ipormtnate es que la pmrirea y la utlima ltera esetn ecsritas en la psiocion cocrreta.
El retso peuden etsar ttaolmntee mal y aun pordas lerelo sin pobrleams, pquore no lemeos cada ltera en si msima snio cdaa paalbra en un contxetso.
Presnoamelnte, esto me preace icrneilbe!
La mrade que lo pairo! Tnatos aoñs de colgeio praa ndaa!
Sally first tried setting a loose a team of gophers. The plan backfired when a dog chased them away. She then entertained a group of teenagers and was delighted when they brought their motorcycles. Unfortunately, she failed to find a Peeping Tom listed in the yellow pages. Furthermore, her stereo system was not loud enough. The crab grass might have worked but she didn´t have a fan that was sufficiently powerful. The obscene phone calls gave her hope until the number was changed. She thought about calling a door ‐ to ‐ door salesman but decided to hang up a clothesline instead. It was the installation of blinking neon lights across the street that did the trick. She eventually framed the ad from the classified section.
TEMA 5
Research and teaching are very different activities.
Research aims to systematically examine specific phenomena with a view to describing and/or explaining them and then publishing the findings.
It contributes to technical knowledge about language teaching and learning.
Teaching involves curriculum planning, designing lessons and then implementing and evaluating them.
This is shaped less by teachers’ technical knowledge than by their practical knowledge of what is likely to work in their specific contexts.
from other professional activities that are conducted through interpersonal interaction.
Friedson’s (1977, cited in Eraut, 1994: 53) account of how a medical practitioner operates is equally applicable to teachers:
One whose work requires practical application to concrete cases simply cannot maintain the same frame of mind as the scholar or scientist... Dealing with individual cases, he cannot rely solely on probabilities or on general concepts or principles: he must also rely on his own senses. By the nature of his work the clinician must assume responsibility for practical action, and in so doing he must rely on his concrete, clinical experience.
The research and theory do not afford a uniform account of how instruction can best facilitate language learning. There is considerable controversy (see Ellis, 2006).
There is no agreement about the efficacy of teaching explicit knowledge or about what type of corrective feedback to provide or even when explicit grammar teaching should commence.
SLA AND PEDAGOGY
As Pit Corder once pondered:
Does learning take place because of the teacher or despite the teacher?
TWO STRONG HYPOTHESES:
The Null Option
The Open Door Option
ESSENTIAL DESIRABLE
A solid review of the literature on instructional effects would lead the reader to the following conclusions:
instruction (i.e., acquisition orders and developmental sequences);
instruction , but instruction may be beneficial; research is investigating the conditions under which this would be so.
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Learners bring to the task of acquisition a variety of internal mechanisms and traits that effectively override most instructional efforts.
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Is learning a language a matter of
developing skills, learning grammar rules,
building neural networks, acquiring tacit
linguistic knowledge, forming new habits,
becoming a member of a new culture,
adding a communicative repertoire, several
of these or something else?
Is learning a language a matter of
developing skills, learning grammar rules,
building neural networks, acquiring tacit
linguistic knowledge, forming new habits,
becoming a member of a new culture,
adding a communicative repertoire, several
of these or something else?
language skills integration;
language which is contextualised;
language relating directly to the learner;
language which is linked to immediate and
visible action;
language which is both verbal and non ‐ verbal;
language which is meaningfully repetitive on a
daily basis;
language which is large in quantity and occurs
over an extended period of time
Proficiency in an L2 requires that learners acquire both a , which caters to , and a consisting of knowledge of specific grammatical rules, which cater to and accuracy. Native speakers have been shown to use a much larger number of than even advanced L2 learners (Foster, 2001). Formulaic expressions may also serve as a basis for the later development of a rule ‐ based competence.
N. Ellis (1996), for example, has suggested that learners bootstrap their way to grammar by and then analyzing fixed sequences.
However, traditional language instruction (MOST FLT classrooms) is directed at developing rule ‐ based competence (i.e., knowledge of specific grammatical rules) through the systematic teaching of pre ‐ selected structures.
If formulaic chunks play a large role in early language acquisition, it may pay to focus on these initially, delaying the teaching of grammar until later (Ellis 2002).
Should we attempt to divide language up into
pieces for instructional purposes?
Does this division into small components
facilitate or hamper language acquisition?
Treat language holistically
Is it possible to teach a language in its full complexity? Discuss with a colleague the advantages and disadvantages of such an approach.
What is it that we learn when we develop
language proficiency?
Are there different types of knowledge?
Explicit knowledge Implicit knowledge
EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE
as knowledge that is analysed
(in the sense that it exists independently of the actual instances of its use),
abstract
(in the sense that it takes the form of some underlying generalization of actual linguistic behaviour)
explanatory
(in that the logical basis of the knowledge is understood independently of it application).
conscious (Ellis, 1997)
IMPLICIT KNOWLEDGE
Intuitive, in the sense that the learner is unlikely to be aware of having ever learnt it and is probably unaware of its existence.
Implicit knowledge is not completely unconscious (Reber, 1989).
It can be abstract
It is of two kinds:
Knowledge of discrete items, and
Rule ‐ based knowledge
ELLIS’ WEAK INTERFACE POSITION
knowledge can be converted into knowledge in the case of non ‐ developmental grammatical rules.
knowledge can be converted into knowledge in the case of developmental rules, providing the learner is ready.
knowledge cannot be converted into knowledge in the case of developmental rules if the learner has not reached the requisite stage.
Not all knowledge originates in an explicit
form.
Formal instruction can help to automatize
both explicit and implicit gramatical
knowledge.
Implicit knowledge
Implicit knowledge is procedural, is held unconsciously and can only be verbalized if it is made explicit. It is accessed rapidly and easily and thus is available for use in rapid, fluent communication. In the view of ,
We do know that adult learners actively try to learn such things as verb endings, nominal inflections, rules, and more generally, “how to say it right.”
And they do this very consciously.
What is not clear, however, is how explicit learning interfaces (if at all) with data from the input.
The would be that it doesn’t.
But because of the somewhat positive effects of instruction it is not clear that explicit learning does not interface in some way.
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(M. Paradis 2004: 61).
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Function and form, action and knowledge are mutually dependent. Action without knowledge is blind, vacuous. Knowledge without action is sterile. Finding the correct balance is the key to successful learning and teaching. (John Trim, Language Teaching)
DO YOU AGREE?
The term focus on meaning is somewhat. It is necessary to distinguish two different senses of this term: The first refers to the idea of (i.e., the meanings of lexical items or of specific grammatical structures). The second sense of focus on meaning relates to (i.e., the highly contextualized meanings that arise in acts of communication). To provide opportunities for students to attend to and , a (or, at least, a task ‐ supported) approach to language teaching is required. It is clearly important that instruction ensures opportunities for learners to focus on both types of meaning but, arguably, .
The opportunity to focus on is important for a number of reasons: In the eyes of many theorists (e.g., Prabhu, 1987; Long, 1996), only when learners are engaged in
are the conditions created for acquisition to take place. To develop true fluency in an L2, learners must have opportunities to create pragmatic meaning (DeKeyser, 1998). Engaging learners in activities where they are focused on creating pragmatic meaning is .
The focus in TBLT lessons is on , not study of a decontextualized linguistic structure or a list of vocabulary items – and not the same phenomena at the supra ‐ sentential level, text.
Spoken or written of someone else's (previous) task accomplishment (i.e., a by ‐ product of tasks). (as in most content ‐ based language teaching) ,
during task completion. Learners need to learn how to do a task themselves.
There is a , for instance, between learning to make a particular kind of social, business, or emergency medical telephone call through acting one out, as in a role play and/or making a real one to given specifications, on the one hand, and on the other, in a text ‐ based program of some kind, listening to or reading a ".
There is now a widespread acceptance that acquisition also requires that learners attend to form. Indeed, according to some theories of L acquisition, such attention is positive for acquisition to take place. Schmidt (1994), for example, has argued that there is no learning without conscious attention to form. The term is capable of more than one interpretation. First, it might refer to a general orientation to language as form.
Second, it might be taken to suggest that learners need to attend only to the graphic or phonetic instantiations of linguistic forms. However, theorists such as Schmidt and Long are insistent that (i.e., the correlation between a particular form and the meaning(s) it realizes in communication). Third, focus on form might be assumed to refer to .
Through grammar activities designed to help learners acquire specific grammatical features by means of
input- or output processing. This can use both
inductive and deductive strategies.
Through focused tasks. These are language learning
tasks that aim at helping learners to comprehend and
process specific grammatical structures in the input,
and/or to produce the structures in the performance of the task.
By means of methodological options that induce attention to form in the context of performing a task: (James & Garret, 1991), (Rutherford, 1987), or (Sharwood Smith, 1993).
…focus on formS and focus on form are not polar opposites in the way that “form” and “meaning” have often been considered to be. Rather, a focus on form entails a focus on formal elements of language, whereas focus on formS is limited to such a focus, a focus on meaning excludes it. Most important, it should be kept in mind that the fundamental assumption of focus-on-form instruction is that meaning and use must be evident to the learner at the time that attention is drawn to the linguistic apparatus needed to get the meaning across. (Doughty & Williams, 1998:4)
Production serves to generate better input through the feedback that learners’ efforts at production elicit.
It forces syntactic processing (i.e., obliges learners to pay attention to grammar).
It allows learners to test out hypotheses about the TL grammar. It helps to automatize existing knowledge.
It provides opportunities for learners to develop discourse skills.
OUTPUT
Swain (1995) summarizes the contributions
that output can make:
Research on French immersion programs across Canada has shown that a communicatively ‐ oriented input ‐ rich environment does not provide all the necessary conditions for L2 acquisition.
Swain proposed the in response to Krashen’s Input Hypothesis.
The was influenced by cognitive theory and sociocultural theory ‐
Swain and Lapkin refer to the “Collaborative dialogue” term in their studies,
state that cognitive processes begin as external activities which eventually become internal.
.
In addition… Functions of learner output
The – consciousness‐raising role
The
The ( ) ,
The production of TL may push the learner to become in their current L2 system ( )
that have been implicated in L2 learning
Cognitive processes generate linguistic knowledge that is new for learners, or that consolidate their existing knowledge.
to experiment with new structures and forms ( )
, discuss and analyse these problems explicitly ( )
Various provide for the usefulness of collaborative tasks that lead learners to reflect on their own language production as they attempt to create meaning (Donato, 1994; LaPierre, 1994).
Rich input combined with a variety of noticing activities may be enough to facilitate grammar learning.
Only L2 production (i.e. output) really learners to undertake complete grammatical processing and of L2 syntax and morphology
Comprehension vs. Production
seems most useful in the area of vocabulary
- The need to produce it in a precise and appropriate
way encourages the learner to develop the necessary
grammatical resources (pushed output).
- It furnishes the opportunity for trial of hypothesis
- It forces the learner to move from semantic to
syntactic processing, since learners have to pay
attention to the means of expression.
is a process accomplished by active agents who make choices about what and how they learn based on their own personal histories, constrained by, and offered affordances by, their localized environment. Languaging is not ‘output practice.’
. (Swain, 2005)
is more than quantity of
exposure.
is determined by. (Comprehensibility, contextuality, familiarity, assistance, affective
factors, and participatability).
- In engagement with language, (including attending and focusing) are of central
importance.
- In order to turn language affordance into , both
social and cognitive processing are required, Two
kinds of understanding are involved:
.
- For to become , i.e. language that is
retained in memory and can be effectively and
appropriately accessed, various kinds of practice,
including rehearsal, may be necessary.
THE FUNCTION OF INTERACTION: THE INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS
typically by means of designed to elicit predetermined responses from the learners (Long and Sato 1983)
The talk that results is sometimes viewed as
in comparison with that which takes place outside the classroom
Opportunities to negotiate meaning are in the
classroom.
INTERACTION
Creating contexts of language use where students have a reason to attend to language;
providing opportunities for learners to use the language to express their own personal meanings;
helping students to participate in language ‐ related activities that are beyond their current level of proficiency; encouraging them to participate in a full range of contexts that cater for a full performance in the language.
INTERACTION
Interaction can create an acquisition-rich
classroom (Johnson, 1995):
How, then, can instruction take account of the learners built‐in syllabus? There are a number of possibilities: , as proposed by Krashen. That is, employ a task‐based approach that makes no attempt to predetermine the linguistic content of a lesson. 2. . However, this is probably impractical as teachers have no easy way of determining where individual students have reached and it would necessitate a highly individualized approach to cater for differences in developmental level among the students. Also, as we noted earlier, such fine‐tuning may not be necessary. While instruction in a target feature may not enable learners to beat the built‐in syllabus it may serve to push them along it as long as the target structure is not too far ahead of their developmental stage.
as explicit knowledge is not subject to the same developmental constraints as implicit knowledge.
Error feedback can be effective, if it is sustained over an extended period of time, and focussed on something that the learners are actually capable of learning. The error/mistake distinction is one of manifestation of the more general knowledge/processing ability distinction (Johnson, 1996).
1. The desire or need to eradicate the mistake.
2. A model of the correct form being used in
the ROCs under which the mistake was
made.
3. A realization by ss that their performance
was flawed.
4. An opportunity to reappraise in the ROCs.
Students will need at least:
Correcting service in tennis needs:
- a desire to serve properly;
- to know what a good service looks and feels like;
- a realization that the service was bad, and
- the chance to practice again
the most effective way to correct mistakes is best executed not by means of formal explanation but by
Foster the development of intercultural
competence
Foster the development of
intercultural competence
Intercultural skills and know ‐ how include:
cultural awareness and sensitivity,
the ability to establish relations and mediate
between cultures, and t
the ability to overcome intercultural
misunderstandings and stereotyped
relationships (Council of Europe, 2001: 104 ‐
About language learning
Some things we just come to be able to do,
like walking, recognising happiness in
others, making simple utterances. We have
little insight into the nature of the
processing involved – we learn to do them
implicitly like swallows learn to fly. Other
of our abilities depend on our knowing
how to do them (playing chess, using a
computer). These we learn explicitly.
Which of human cognitive capabilities are
acquired implicitly and which learned
explicitly?
MJR
About language learning
When you have considered the pedagogical issues and proposals in the following sections, you may like to revisit the above general language education principles in order to ask the following questions: If we are commited to pedagogy for autonomy, how might each aspect of SLA and FLT theory mutate?
What might be the practical implications of such a mutation?
