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CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
A PRACTICAL INTRODUCTION TO POWER
IN LANGUAGE
BY SIMON STATHAM
1 Power in Language- Principles of Critical
Discourse Analysis
1.1 Introduction CDA is essentially about examining and exposing how power operates through language. 1.2 Key terms: Power Discourse and Ideology Fairclough (2015) analyses the concept of power. The power has the potential to operate in the interests of individuals and society. However, the achievement of this potential depends on the practical organization of power within society itself. He also discusses the legitimation of power. He offers the example of democratic elections as a site of legitimate power. The legitimization of power is a natural concept and contributes to the maintenance of society. The power is directly connected to access to social resources. 1.2.1 Power as Domination and Persuasion Scott (2001) classified two types of power: Mainstream power : power as domination. This view of power is based on the work of German sociologist Weber whose theory of bureaucracy continues to inform social scientific thinking on the power of premodern and modern nation-states. Weber's focus on the corrective power of the state also recognizes the power of institutions such as businesses, the legal system, and the church. Each of these institutions possesses traditional authority over people and often can punish non-compliance or resistance. second stream power: Scott 2001 stresses the importance of power as facilitative and communal. The persuasive process is represented by the Italian Antonio Gramsci in his principle of:" hegemony". Hegemony refers to how powerful groups persuade subordinates of the importance and legitimacy of their moral, cultural, and economic principles. Powerful groups persuade those with less power of the legitimacy of socio-cultural values which inevitably serve and reinforce their position of control. The second stream power recognizes that these systems are constructed ideologically through processes that persuade people. A critical discourse view of language recognizes the role played by the language and the other communicative system in the process of legitimization of power. Critical Discourse Analysis seeks to expose how these ideologies have been constructed in language at various levels.
1.2.2 Discourse and Ideology Mayr, Simpson, and Stahtman make a distinction between language and discourse. Discourse is what happens when language gets done. It is the instantiation of the patterns available in the language in the real context of use. Language refers to the more abstract set of patterns and rules which operate simultaneously at different levels in the system Discourse refers to how language is used ideologically in the social organization of society. The view of ideology operates in a close inter-relationship with the interests of social groups or institutions. The view of ideology as operating closely with the interests of power groups has its origins in Marxist theory. 1.3 Critical Discourse Analysis: In Principle Using linguistics to examine the ideologies of socio-political, the text has its origins in "critical linguistics" a term coined by Roger Fowler to classify the classic publication Language and Control. Trew explains that an important part of the discourse is its engagement with the wider social world. Fairclough insists that linguistic phenomena are social and social phenomena are linguistic. The dialectical relationship is a term used by discourse analysts. They mean that society is affected by the language which describes it and that the form of this language is in turn affected by this function. CDA is focused on how and why linguistic features are produced in institutional discourse. Fairclough suggests that research and analysis count as CDA in so far as it has all the following characteristics: 1- It is not just an analysis of discourse but it is part of some form of transdisciplinary analysis between discourse and other elements of the social process. 2- It is not just general commentary on discourse, it includes some form of systematic analysis of text 3- It is not just descriptive but also normative. It addresses social wrongs in their descriptive aspects and possible ways of righting or mitigating them 1.3.1 Manifesto for CDA Fairclough and Wodak set out the central methodological and theoretical principles of CDA: 1* CDA Addresses Social Problems: CDA focuses on the partially linguistic character of social and cultural processes and structures. 2* Power relations are discursive: In acknowledging the linguistic nature of power relations, CDA also notes that "power relations are exercised and negotiated in discourse 3* Discourse constitutes Society and Culture: This position refers to the dialectical relationship between discourse and society. Discourse constitutes both society and culture and is constituted by them. 4* Discourse does ideological Work: Fairclough and Wodak state that ideologies are "particular ways of representing and constructing society which produces unequal relations of power/relation of domination and exploitation.CDA consider social effects of the ideological work which is done by discourse. 5* Discourse is Historical: This principle reminds the analyst that discourse comes accompanied by context and therefore that context must be taken into consideration when examining the ideological implication of a text. As well as accompanying sociocultural knowledge discourse should also be considered intertextually. 6* The link between text and society is mediated, for example, the language produced by an institution is mediated by various institutional practices.
Explanation refers to the social practice dimension of the model. It analyzes the relationship between the text and the social context analyzing how the text interacts with ideologies and power relations in wider society. The model is versatile. 2.3 How to Apply the Three-dimensional Model of CDA Text Headlines are defined by Bell as part of news rhetoric whose function is to attract the reader. Iarovic and Amel state that headlines have a dual function : semantic function regarding the referential text pragmatic function regarding the reader The production of headlines is a significantly ideological process. the verb "threaten" is attributed to lecturers who are cast as aggressive actors. Lecturers also "walk out" and "issue demands" The industrial action being proposed is "unprecedented" and"being done deliberately to coincide with exams season". The strike is constructed as an action taken by lecturers to the specific detriment of students" The word " pension" is mentioned once amidst the disproportionate focus on examinations. Lexical cohesion refers to the repetition or reiteration of words that are linked in meaning. Unprecedented, demands are repeated in the second paragraph. Cohesion is also achieved using a repetition o selected statistics 45000 academics, 64 universities This vague and unattributed assessment of the higher education pension dispute is textually important because this information is offered after a clear narrative of selfish and aggressive academics has been constructed. It's an example of Overlexicalisation: a pragmatic strategy that encodes ideologies in news discourse by a lexical focus on an aspect of a particular event that is disproportionate to reality. The overlexicalisation in this case creates an opposition between lecturers and students The article starts using modal verbs even if the ideological position of the publication is clear. In this first dimension, we should also consider whether or not metaphors are used and consider the evaluative meaning of certain words. In terms of grammar, the majority of sentences are active and they follow a standard subject-verb- object. The process of passivization is often very ideological. Patterns of pronouns are used to create alliances or oppositions within a text and between a writer and a reader. The text encoder and the text decoder can suggest the ideological position of a text. Discursive Practice The second stage considers the processes involved in the production, distribution, and consumption of news discourse. Sources can be chosen to reinforce the ideological position of the piece. Quotations from sources are the main way in which intertextuality is realized in media. This article considers less important academic's pensions than their effects on the students. The first two quotations are from two students who blame lecturers to be selfish. Using the lexical cohesion the strike is viewed as selfish
TH third quotation is from Sally Hunt. She offers a defense stating that she's devastated that students will be affected by this. This quotation allows the union to offer some explanation for the action and casts blame squarely as an imposition rather than a negotiation. The Mail acknowledges that the proposed changes are riskier but offers mitigation in acknowledging the rising cost of the pension scheme. Social Practice This article reinforces the prominent neo-liberal view of higher education as a commodity. The construction of higher education in this article contributes to a vindication of capitalism where individuals are responsible for their progression, the employees do not possess inherent value beyond their primary tasks within an institution, and the institutions are viewed as achievements in monetary terms. Some newspapers of the right-wing in Britain are the Daily Telegraph and the Times. In the UK there is the narrative of the university experience that is used to justify the massive fees which lead students to graduate.
3 Beginning Analysis
Systemic Functional System: This is a functional-semiotic approach to language that is concerned with the relationship between language and social structure. 3.1 CDA and SFL Halliday in his text Introduction to Functional Grammar 1994 states that the linguistic analysis of discourse pursues two possible levels of achievement: Understanding and Explanation. Understanding is the lower level. Linguistic analysis enables one to show how and why the text means what it does. It is based on grammar. The explanation is when linguistic analysis enables one to show how and why the text is or is not effective for its purposes. For Halliday language represents a series of grammatical options which are chosen according to social circumstances. SFL provides you with methodological tools to answer questions that describe a discourse.
3.2 The functions of language
In systemic Functional Languages, Halliday seeks to describe three functions of language that are simultaneously fulfilled by texts. These functions are : The experimental function encodes patterns of experience in written or spoken text and is primarily relayed through transitivity. The interpersonal function refers to how language operates as an interactive event between a reader and a writer as well as between a speaker and a listener. The textual function is about how writers and speakers connect parts of discourse. It is examined by considering cohesion and coherence in the text the former referring to the internal connection between clauses in a text and the latter to how external connections are built between the text and its context.
3.3 The experimental function: Transitivity
3.3.3 Behavioural Processes
Behavioral processes refer to psychological or physical behavior. They have one participant known as Behavier. Examples of processes are laughing smile frown watch stare.
3.3.4 Verbal processes
Verbal processes refer to the process of saying. The participant's roles are the sayer who does the saying and the receiver to whom the verbal process is directed. Verbiage is what it is said. The receiver is not always explicit The verbiage element is not always explicit
3.3.5 Relational processes
Relational processes refer to a particular type of state of being and encode meanings where things are stated to exist concerning other things. The three types of Relational processes are: Intensive relational processes denote a relationship of equivalence x=y. It is identified by the verb to be and an adjective or an adverb. Possessive relational processes are identified as x has y with the verb to have or indicated by a possessive apostrophe. Circumstantial relational process denotes an x is in/at/on/with y marked by the verb to be and a prepositional phrase. These types are subdivided into two models. Attributive relational models have as participants attribute and carrier. Identifying relational models have as participants identifier/token and identified/value. In most cases identifying clauses can be reversed whereas attributive cannot.
3.3.6 Existential Processes
Existential processes are used to encode in a language that something exists or happens. There is one participant known as the Existent. The verb to be and its synonyms express existential processes. In these sentences operates a dummy subject because it doesn't possess any function.
3.4 Transitivity in Action
In this article, there are 40 processes 10 are Material. Only five are carried by Taliban insurgents- executed-tied up -shot making, and abandoned. The material process carried out by the equipment is also ideologically informative. The Actors are both soldiers and inanimate military equipment so there are both event and material processes. The processes are all deliberate rather than involuntary actions. In the article, there aren't terms like kill, or shoot even if it is about a military operation in a warzone. The only occurrence of the term shoot is not related to the British troops. The weapons are targeted but not fired, the village is unaffected. The construction of professionalism is reinforced by naming military practices and this constructs a sense of legitimate armed forces in a non-violent military action.
The goals of these materials processes play a role in the legitimization constructed by the sun. Goals are inanimate so didn't affect people. The Afghan cop is the exception and in this case, the human goal is a beneficiary of the operation. Material processes like forced back-disrupted are euphemisms. Euphemism: is the use of words or phrases which make something seem more positive than it might otherwise appear. There are two references to fighting:" two monsters gun attack " and "another gun battle" used by the preposition "during" and "after" and are both examples of nominalization.
4. Developing Analysis
Introduction
The second function of SFL is the interpersonal function. The interpersonal function refers to how language is organized as an interactive event and how language is used as an exchange of information between participants and what the content of this exchange tells about the stance of a speaker/writer. It focuses on the level of commitment a speaker or writer has to a proposition. It is expressed by different types of modality. Young Fitzgerald and Fitzgerald say that when people exchange information they introduce attitudes and stances into their discourse. This includes attitudes and stances toward their topic and listeners/readers. These attitudes and stances are represented by mood and modality. Mood: refers to whether the information is being given or asked or whether an order is being issued. The three moods in English are declarative interrogative, and imperative. Modality: expresses a speaker's/ writer's attitude or opinion on what is being said. It is marked in four ways: probability frequency obligation inclination
4.2 Mood
In a declarative, the information is given in the form of a statement. In CDA analysts examine the context in which declarative clauses are given and if the power is possessed by both parties. In many institutional speeches, there is an unequal encounter. There are two types of interrogatives: Polar interrogatives: where a confirmation or a denial is the request Wh interrogatives: where additional information is requested In terms of power, some power is ceded by the questioner to the answerer in the sentence. The questioner possesses less institutional power than her/his interlocutor the respondent could choose to ignore the polar element. One institutional context where the distinction between polar and wh- interrogatives is significant is in the courtroom during the evidence phase of a trial. When the witness is being questioned by friendly counsel wh- interrogatives are more common. When the witness is being questioned by unfriendly counsel polar questions are more common because it's a way to exert as much power as possible. They can be used after a definitive sentence to present a clear evaluation to the jury.
Key distinction: Inscribed and Invoked Appraisal
All three types of evaluation can be rendered by more indirect strategies. The words in the table are examples of the direct evaluation that is said to be inscribed. An invoked evaluation is a construction that implies the emotional response of the speaker or reader and potentially the listener or reader with whom is exchanging opinions. ex. All her Christmases had come once.
4.4.2 judgment
Judgment refers to the evaluation of how people should behave and therefore codifies ethical or moral reactions. There are two main types of judgment: Social esteem: involves admiration and criticism without legal implication Social sanction: involves praise and condemnation with the legal implication Social esteem is subdivided in : capacity: how capable someone is normality: how usually someone is tenacity: how resolute someone is Social sanction is subdivided in: propriety: how ethical someone is veracity: how truthful someone is In some cases, it is possible to chart a progression of judgment. Tips for applying the Appraisal Framework Glue pages 70-
Examples 4.
Most of these negative judgments are expressions of the commentator's belief that these protestors are privileged youths with neither the ability nor the genuine will to effect any sort of change. This article also demonstrates how consistent use of negative or positive judgment can create a sort of crescendo effect in discourse through which the type of judgment used is elevated or increased. Clarkson also negatively judges certain social conditions in this article focusing on the notion that legislation which regulates police action is restrictive. This sort of common-sense defense is used to naturalize and legitimize certain unpalatable political or social positions. The relatively informal language is called: conversalization and it helps to reduce the distance between the speaker and the listener. ex. let Plod get on with knife crime It contributes to interdiscursivity and be addressed in the discursive practice dimension of Fairclough's model of CDA.
4.4.3 Appreciation
The third type of evaluation is appreciation. It refers to expressions of how things are valued. It is comprised of the subsections: reaction: describes impact and quality
composition: refers to balance and complexity valuation addresses questions like: "Did I find it meaningful?"
5 Strengthening Analysis
5.1 Introduction
The third function of SFL is the textual function. The textual function is about how writers or speakers connect part of the discourse and it is analyzed by paying attention to cohesion and coherence in the text. Cohesion refers to the internal connections between clauses in a text and coherence to how external connections are built between a text and a context.
5.2 Cohesion and Coherence in "Innovative" Education
In the example, innovation and leadership are the main topics. Leadership and excellence are terms used by universities to obfuscate the insidiousness of the achievement of their goals. The rheme is in italics and provides the reader with additional information. Topical themes are made up of participants' processes or circumstances and are core elements of a clause in transitivity analysis. There are two other types of themes. Interpersonal themes reveal a speaker or a writer's position toward the content of the clause. The textual theme contains the conjunctions but, therefore, and. These three types of themes correspond with the three functions in SFL. There are cohesive devices that can be significant in the discourse: repetition of the same lexical item or phrase Ellipsis: is a feature of cohesion and occurs when the speaker omits certain words or phrases in a message safe that listeners will be able to decode the mental meaning Anaphoric references connect words in a text with one that comes later. Cataphoric references refer to words in the following text essentially operating oppositely. ex. Our position is that you have to complete it. Anaphore and Cataphore are endospheres. 5.3.1 Political Leaflets Recent decades have increased the mediatization of politics which refers to a dialogical relationship between the political and media spheres in our contemporary context. Media vehicles political messages although traditional methods such as leaflets and placards are still central. They can be examined using the three functions of SFL. Experimental function The transitivity process is almost exclusively Material. The three sections labeled as priorities are replete with material processes. The green party is characterized as against industrial progress so the environment is a typical goal. Interpersonal function The leaflet contains the most prominent imperative mood telling the reader to vote for the candidate but in general, the mood is declarative giving information. The clauses of priorities appear as imperative but they are just intentions of the candidate.
The mnemonic S.M.A.R.T. is composed of many imperatives. A consideration of the interpersonal function reaffirms the conclusion reached through the application of transitivity, the blame for rapes is attributed to the victim.
Textual function
The colors in the leaflet are black, white, and fluorescent pink. These colors are similar to those used for advertising nightclubs in a conscious attempt to emulate this discourse for readers. The three official logos are also connected. Through the process of overlexicalisation, a clear rationale for sexual assault is the result of victims putting themselves in vulnerable situations. 5.4 Ideological Implications: The Language of Sexual Assault The blame for sexual assault is attributed to the victims. It states that the effect of alcohol on a woman in a rape scene is to make her culpable and when an attacker has been drinking it somehow exculpates him. Clark proffers a distinction between a respectable/sexually unavailable woman and an unrespectable/sexually available woman. If a sexually unavailable woman is raped the aggressor is called a "monster" rather than a man. The patriarchal organization remains largely unscrutinized. For critical discourse analysts "attitudes which are ingrained in people are constructed by power patriarchal institutions partly through language and are disseminated through media discourse which constructs a hierarchy of legitimacy by victims. This notion of a legitimate victim is reinforced by language in places where the onus for tackling sexual assault is on potential victims rather than perpetrators. Although most legal systems do not require this act of resistance, defense barristers operate by the safe assumption that jurors will expect it to be present. Tiersma highlights that rape is a mental state rather than a physical or vocal act so it is possible for the consent not to be present even though a victim doesn't:" say no to any sex you don't want".
6 Voices in Discourse
6.1 Introduction
Discourse drives the process through which readers/listeners internalize certain ideologies as common-sense principles which appear natural and legitimate. Caldas-Coulthard offers a model for examining verbs of saying which enables the analyst to conclude the ideological publication. The use of a source in media discourse is an institutional practice that contributes to the construction of the media. The criteria include the type of event that gets to be new in the first place, the sources which are selected to be included in a story and how the voices are represented, and the processes of editing attributing headlines, images, and captions in media articles.
6.2 How to make the news
At the beginning of the process of the production of news, decisions have to be made about what is included and excluded from a newspaper-broadcast. Online there aren't these limitations. Other decisions might be more philosophical than practical and are also considered the geographical spectrum and the political spectrum of the news.
6.2.1 Geographical Spectrum of the News
Geographically there are four types of news: local regional National International Local newspapers will not necessarily ignore national or international stories but the stories may be presented with some aspects of "local interest". Television news is organized along similar lines as newspapers. Most national or regional newspapers will have dedicated international news sections labeled as "Worlds Events" or Around the Globe".
6.2.2 Political Spectrum of the News
The perspective offered depends on the political position of a newspaper. There is a distinction between the so-called "quality press" and newspapers based more on entertainment. 6.2.3 Newswirthuness The most influential list of "news values" was developed by Galtung and Ruge. page 103 Harccup and O'neill include factors like celebrities, Sex and Entertainment, and acknowledge the political agenda of a publication. Jewkes add Sex, Violence, Visual Spectacles, and Children to the list. The fact that on social media people can post everything makes ineffective the list in the social media context. The media is not a neutral representation of the world and is doing ideological work through content and linguistic composition of the content.
6.3 Sourcing the News
Media provide only information desired by their audience.
6.4 Verbs of Saying
Caldas-Coulthrd offered a taxonomy of verbs of saying which enables us to consider how speakers and their words are evaluated. Table 6. Neutral structuring verbs can make a speaker appear disengaged or even less personalized. Metapropositional verbs are distinct in three types:
Collectivization can represent groups having homogenous characteristics.
Categorization and Nomination
Nomination occurs when social actors are represented in the form of their unique identity. It is realized using proper nouns. Social actors can be nominated formally (honorification) or informally. Categorization refers to nameless characters. Functionalism occurs when social actors are represented by an activity, occupation, or role. Functionalism and identification occur when social actors are referred to as "what they more or less permanently, or unavoidably are". There are three types of identification: Classification Relational identification Physical identification Classification occurs when a social actor is categorized "using which a given society or institution differentiates between classes of people. Gender in Contemporary Western societies is considered something which is performed and fluid rather than biologically fixed. Relational identification is denoted by nouns such as "mother" etc... Physical identification refers to physical characteristics. Men are less often represented by their physical identification.
7.3 Social Actors in Representation of "Race"
Dijk presents race and racial to recognize the fact that these are social rather than biological distinctions. Racism is the manifestation of racialized thinking when people are subjected to discrimination in an array of forms. Racist discourse is a social practice with tangible and measurable outcomes. Many approaches from these areas of study utilize the concept of the " other" as a way of exploring the characteristics of the sense of self. The differences define the characteristics but can also lead to aggression against the other. Universalization is a similar naturalization process that concerned the prominence of white European and white American principles and values. The old-racism is referred to skin color. New racism is constructed through reference to nationality, ethnicity, culture, and religion. Elite racism is carried out through processes such as positive self-presentation and negative other presentations.
7.3.1 "Race" in the Media
Ethnic minorities in some sections of media are always represented in a limited set of negative references. There are 8 broad categories: Provenance/Transit/Destination Number
Entry Economic problems Residence Return/repatriation Legality Plight A limited media focused on features of immigration like: The economic contribution of immigrants Building a broader skill base Cultural and linguistic enrichment
8 Politics and power analyzing Political
Language
Politics is not the exclusive purview of political professionals. Ordinary people engage in politics as voters in elections and might attend protests or demonstrations. Metaphor is a core component in how language users conceptualize the world around them, is pervasive in language, and plays a particularly important part in political discourse.
8.2 Metaphor
It is the process through which we understand one thing in terms of another. It plays a routine and important part in everyday conceptual thought. The two conceptual domains in metaphor structure are known as the "source domain" and the "target domain". Particular metaphorical constructions which demonstrate the pervasiveness of metaphor in everyday expressions are the orientational metaphors UP is GOOD and DOWN is BAD. Ex. on top of the world Charteris- Black examines metaphors present in the manifestos of the British Conservative and Labour parties respectively. Conservative party defends social goals or social groups that are presented as being under attack by Labour. Labor defends the National Health Service and is determined to defend it Right-wing anti-immigration language often uses disaster metaphors to construct the perception of a threat around the issues of immigration. Ex. Waves-floods A process of transfer is metonymy. Metonymy refers to transfer within a single conceptual domain rather than drawing on one conceptual domain to describe another. A particular type of metonymy is synecdoche. Synecdoche in which the part stands for the whole. Small capitals are also used in an analysis to note the metonymy. This technique is notable in the critiques of politicians and political figures where they are represented with the satirical and hyperbolic distortion of their physiognomy.
8.3 Strategic Function of Political Language
The Strategic functions proffered by Chilton and Shaffner and Chilton are coercion, legitimation, and representation.
The classical approach is in Aristotle's Rhetoric. He defines rhetoric as the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion. Persuasion aims to legitimize and naturalize for audiences the ideologies of the powerful. Aristotle defined the three types of rhetoric: forensic: It is related to arguments surrounding justice and injustice. epideictic: is ceremonial and focuses on concepts such as honor and dishonor deliberative: concerns justifications of political decisions in terms of advantages and disadvantages. The terms: Ethos, Pathos, and Logos are related to the construction of persuasion. 9.2.1 Ethos Ethos refers to the personal character of the speaker some qualities are authority and expertise. Ethos is linked to legitimation through the establishment of the expertise of a speaker. 9.2.2 Pathos Pathos refers to persuasion constructed through emotion. Pathos is used to construct emotional responses in an audience and refers to the many linguistic ways that this can be achieved. Pathos is related to emotive coercion. 9.2.3 Logos Logos refers to the presentation of an argument as logical. Persuasion is pursued by offering evidence a logical argument for acceptance is offered. We also noted the selectivity of certain statistics and the omission of others. Halliday identifies a set of text-building devices known as "conjunctive adjuncts" which correlate with the type of structures often found in logic argumentation. It requires some cognitive decoding. 9.3 Boris Johnson's Rhetoric Ethos is evident at the outset of the letter. The letterhead is comprised of the royal coat of arms and the functional address of the Prime minister who is categorized through functionalization. Complex syntactic structures obscure both agency and action in the discourse. Actions are justified through their seeming self-evidence of "rightness" instead of measures and the timeframe themselves. The over-lexicalized focus on this undefined rightness. Boris Johnson had consistently failed to attend emergency preparedness meetings and facilities to expand testing for coronavirus had not been approached by the government until April 2020. In this letter, Boris makes effective use of Logos to establish the danger of the virus and the necessity of the lockdown measures. Logos is constructed through the additive and purposive in the sentence. The metaphorical construction of the coronavirus as an enemy or an opponent establishes the necessity of the measures. War was invoked in many politicians in their language. Churchill's language has a reputation for patriotic fervor, and politicians felt that they needed to harbor such feelings in the face of the pandemic.
10 Multimodal Critical Discourse Analysis
Multimodal CDA focuses on images and other modes of communication alongside written and spoken text.
10.1.1 Types of Multimodal Discourse
Social media often incorporates written text, images, video, and sound.
10.1.2 Multimodal Critical Discourse Analysis
Images, sounds, and videos construct ideological meaning. Advertising operates to persuade consumers to buy a product. Advertising does not have to buy a product. Advertising can be viewed as ideological work which upholds and reinforces the stratified organization of society along economic lines. The functions of Systemic Functional Linguistics can be applied to images as well as text.
10.2 Visual Systemic Functional Linguistics
In this section, we will outline more systematically how the models of analysis prominent in SFL can be used in a Multimodal CDA.
10.2.1 Visual SFL and Iconography in Media Images
The transitivity framework examines the experiential function of language by analyzing processes, participants, and circumstances. The analyst is interested in who does what to whom and how. Certain processes like Mental processes and processes of Verbalisation are more difficult to encode visually. These emotions have obvious links with Mental processes. Images contain visual representations of passivation where an action or the result of an action might be portrayed but no perpetrators; a Goal but no Actor might be present. Experientially this image reinforces the main message of the article. The generic student is the Actor. Images can be denoted or connoted. Cultural associations of elements in the image. Example sport cars connote wealth. Two important carriers of connotation are object and setting. In this image the important objects are the glasses and the books. Clothings attire the connotative meaning. For example soldiers in uniform vs paramilitaries. Casual style associated with students. The textual function of language addresses cohesion is often constructed through the linked use of color. Interpersonal function is the analysis of how the viewer and the represented participants interact. 10.3 Salience Salience: means that they are made to stand out and draw the attention of the viewer to certain symbolic meanings. There are seven methods through which salience can be achieved: Potent cultural symbol Size Color Tone Focus Foregrounding
