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Grammar Subject question Preposition question Short question Direct question Question word+auxiliar verb+subject+main verb Es. What does “strategy” mean? When the question Word is the subject use the affermative fork of The verb Es. what happened next? Usually preposition come at the end. Es. What was thailand like? Ending the in preposition are Common in conversation. Es. i’m going aiut tonight. Where to? Or who with? Indirect question To ask question in a more polite way or for very personal questions. After the opening phrase use the affermative form. Es. could you tell me What time the lesson starts?
Making comparison One syllables adjecyives Two “ “ Three or more “ “ Irregular Comprative Comparative adjectives are used to compare differences between the two objects they modify (larger, smaller, faster, higher). They are used in sentences where two nouns are compared, in this pattern: Noun (subject)
- verb + comparative adjective + than
- noun (object). Add -er for the comparative and -est for the superlative. If the adjective has a consonant + single vowel + consonant spelling, the final consonant must be doubled before adding the ending. Adjectives with two syllables can form the comparative either by adding -er or by preceeding the adjective with more. These adjectives form the superlative either by adding -est or by preceeding the adjective with most. In many cases, both forms are used, although one usage will be more common than the other. If you are not sure whether a two-syllable adjective can take a comparative or superlative ending, play it safe and use more and most instead. For adjectives ending in y, change the y to an i before adding the ending. Adjectives with three or more syllables form the comparative by putting more in front of the adjective, and the superlative by putting most in front. •Good better best •Bad worse worst •little less least •much more most •far further furthest Making comparison
Countable & uncountable nouns Positive Negative Question Countable For positive sentences we can use a/an for singular nouns or some for plurals. A LOT/S ( with both) There's a man at the door. I have some friends in New York For negatives we can use a/an for singular nouns or any for plurals. I don't have a dog. There aren't any seats. In questions we use a/ an, any or how many with countable nouns. Is there an email address to write to? Are there any chairs? How many chairs are there? Uncontable ( posta rice bread coffee...) We use some with uncountable nouns in positive sentences. A LOT/S ( with both) Any we use any or how much with uncountable nouns. Is there any sugar? How much chioccolate? But when we are offering something or asking for something, we normally use some. Do you want some chocolate? Can we have some more chairs, please? Relative or cohesion devices What are How many are Cohesion devices Cohesive devices, sometimes called linking words, linkers, connectors, discourse markers or transitional words. Cohesive Devices are words or phrases that show the relationship between paragraphs or sections of a text or speech. •show similiarity ( Like- Equally- and-too-identically) •introduce an item in a series ( first - then - in the first place- finally- in addiction) •to compare (but - however- neverthless- in contrast- meanwhile..) •cohesive devices (in fact- absolutely-obviously..)
Time conjunction When - once - as soon as Before- after - until While Time conjunction We can use when, once, as and as soon as to talk about a specific point in time when something happened or will happen We use before and after to talk about the order of events in the past or future. With before and after, either the main clause or the subordinate clause can come first: [event 1] She’ll pick you up before [event 2] she comes here. We use while to show that actions or events happen at the same time in the past, present or future Not DURING: During is a preposition, not a conjunction, and it must be followed by a noun or a pronoun. Wish Past Simple Could Would Wishes about the present Wish+past simple for things you want to change but it is impossibile or not likely. Es. i wish i had more time Use wish+could to talk about possibilities and abilities you want to change Es. i wish i could swim Use wish+ person/thing
- would to talk about things you want to change because they annoy you. Don’t use this to talk about yourself. Es. i wish you’d listen to me. Wishes in the past Use wish+ past perfect to talk about things which happened or didn’t happen in the past and which you regret now. Es. i wish i’d stayed at home. If only To talk about the present and the past.
Relative clauses Defining relative clauses •Give essential Information about a noun. Es, that guy is the actor Who is going to play ... •don’t use commas before •can use that insead of which or who •can omit the relative pronoun/adverb when it is the object of the relative clauses. Es. ken just see a woman (Who) he want to the University. ( he is the subject of the relative clauses Who is the object so we can omit it) Non-defining “ •give Additional Information non essential •use comma to separate from the rest Es. that’s sam , Who is going to play... •cannot use that instead Who or which Es. the film , which win the Oscar last year, was made in Italy •cannot omit the relative pronouns/ adverbs. Es. Gwen, Who i’m going to see later, is my girlfriend. •can use which to refer to the Whole of a prevoius clause. Es. the plane was delayed, which meant we we were late. Pronouns and adverbs Use Who/ that for people and which/that for things. Whose for possession ( city- countries- suggest group of people)and when for time and where for palace Es it a city whose inhabitants always ... Preposition Informal English Spoken preposition are at the end Es. this is the book she is famous for In formal: preposition come before the relative clauses Es. he is someone with whom i can work
NARRATIVE TENSE ARE: past simple - past continuos - past perfect simple and past p.
Continuos.
Phrasal verbs In terms of word order, there are two main types of phrasal verb: separable and inseparable. Separable With separable phrasal verbs, the verb and particle can be apart or together. They've called the meeting off. OR They've called off the meeting. Separate them id their is a pronouns ( her/it/him...) Inseparable Some phrasal verbs cannot be separated. Who looks after the baby when you're at work? Even when there is a pronoun, the verb and particle remain together. With two particles Phrasal verbs with two particles are also inseparable. Even if you use a pronoun, you put it after the particles. Who came up with that idea? (come up with = think of an idea or plan) Present and past perfect simple and continuos PPS Action which started in the past and continue into the present Ella’s worked Use state verbs Results in ended action PPC Action has continued for a long time ( verbs of duration) Es. we’re been sitting here ( action starts in the past and continue in present) PAST PS Action further Back in the past Es. when i arrived my friends had left Es ho lavorato 8 ore “ PC Long action that are continuated to the beh in inglese of the story ( before a point or an action in the story and continued io ti that action) Es. she had been living there for a week before they met. Es lavoro da 8 ore
Reported speach Direct speach Reported speach Reported question Reported request Reported speach The original verb form often goes Back further into the past. Pronouns time Reference Also change. •Time phrases Yesterday-the day before /previous day Now-then/at that time Tomorrow-the following/next day A week ago- the week before •Palace Reference Here-there •Use normal statement Word order without do/ does/did or a questioni Mark What does ian think She asked me What ian tought •with yes-no question, use if or whether Are you ok? She asked if i was ok •Or wanted to know/ enquired They wanted to know What time the train left •use verb+object+infiniti ve with to Could you sing? He asked us to sing Verbs temple Present simple or continuous I want to be a chief We are working Past simple or continuous He said he wanted to be a chief She told me they were working Past simple/ present perfect Ben phoned me last week I’ve read your book Past perfect Ste Told me Ben had phoned her last week He said he’d read my book Will/would/can/ could/should We’ll help you tomorrow You can stay with me Would/could/should He said they’d help me tomorrow She said I could stay with her
Passive Active Passive Present simple The press follows him everywhere He’s followed everywhere by the press Present continuous The pollice are monitoring his emails His emails are being monitored by The police Past simple Fire destroyed The buiding The building was destroyed by fire Present perfect Someone’s eaten my sandwich My sandwich had been eaten by someone Will Someone will tell you You’ll be told Modals We can’t do it now It can’t be done now -ing form I don’t like people criticising me I don’t like being criticised Infinitive with to The organisers want people to give feedback The organisers want to be given a feedback
Past & mixed conditional Result case Hypothetical past conditional If+past perfect If+past perfect continuous Would/might/could+have
- past participle Use to talk about a hypothetical situation and result in the past. The situation cannot be changed If Leon had known about the problem, he would have helped If you hadn’t overslept, we wouldn’t have been late For longer action If i hadn’t been sitting there, we wouldn’t have met Mixed conditional If+past perfect Would/might/ could+infinitive Use to talk about a hypothetical condition in the past with a result in the present If she hadn’t missed her plane, she’d would be in mexico now.
Future forms Plans, intention, decisions •Use be going to+infinitive to talk about general plans about the future I’m going to look for a new job in New York •Use might/ could/may + infinitive when a plan intention is not definite We might go away for the weekend •use the present continuous to talk about definite plans What are you doing today? I’m having lunch w/ Pete. •use Also planning to or hoping to + infinitive Thinking of + ing Pete is thinking of leaving University. I’m hoping to travel. •use will (‘ll) to talk about decision Made at the Moment of speacking. I think i’ll go to bed now. Predictions •use will/might/could/won’t+ infinitive to make predictions based on opinion. Use w/ verbs like think hope expect know I expect sarah will agree •use will + certainly / definily to state how sure you are Josue and Maria will certanly get divorced after this. •use be likely to+ for strong possibility and due to+infinitive for something that is expected or schedulated to happen. She’s likely to be tired after the trip Meg is due to retire next year. •use going to to make predictions based on present evidence. Look at those clouds it’s going to rain Future facts •Use the present simple to talk about schedules of itineraries The course starts in semptember •use will+infinitive for future facts I’ll be 23 next year.
