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Concetti base linguistica inglese I, Schemi e mappe concettuali di Lingua Inglese

Università degli Studi di Napoli L'Orientale (UNIOR)Lingua Inglese

anno 2022, corso del professore Emilio Amdieo, riassunto di concetti base della linguistica

Tipologia: Schemi e mappe concettuali

2021/2022

Caricato il 19/08/2024

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Lingua Inglese I
Linguistics is defined as the study of language systems. For the purposes of study, language
is divided into levels, or components.
These components are conventional and although they are interrelated in complex ways in
the system of language, we treat them more or less separately. The components of language
study are:
Phonology
The first component is phonology which studies the abstract or mental aspects of speech
sounds of a particular language.
Morphology
The second component of language is morphology is the study of the structure or form of
words in a particular language, and of their classification.
Syntax
The third component of language is syntax.
Syntax is the study of the order and arrangement of words into larger units.
Semantics
The fourth component of language is semantics.
Semantics is the study of how meaning is conveyed in words, phrases, or clauses. There are
different types of semantics:
•Lexical semantics: the meaning relationship between individual words
(e.g.,synonymity: smart/ intelligent; or antonymity: rough/smooth).
•Sentence semantics: the meaning resulting from the interaction of elements in a sentence,
hence the relationship between syntax and semantics (e.g, the different meanings of the
subject of a sentence: the agent of a change "Jill closed the door", or the entity undergoing
a change "The door closed).
•Discourse semantics: the meaning relationships holding among parts in an extended
discourse.
Pragmatics
A fifth component of language, not part of the traditional subdivision but added in recent
years, is pragmatics which is the study of the functions of language and its use in context.
PHONOLOGY
PHONETICS
A subdivision of phonology is phonetics which studies the actual physical articulation of
speech sounds of human language in general.
-Phonology-> function of sound in language as a system
-Phonetics-> physical/material production of sounds
Phonetics is the study of the way humans make, transmit and receive speech sounds.
It is divided in:
-Articulatory Phonetics: the study of the way the vocal organs are used to produce speech
sounds;
-Acoustic Phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds;
-Auditory Phonetics: the study of the way people perceive speech sounds.
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Lingua Inglese I

Linguistics is defined as the study of language systems. For the purposes of study, language is divided into levels, or components. These components are conventional and although they are interrelated in complex ways in the system of language, we treat them more or less separately. The components of language study are: Phonology The first component is phonology which studies the abstract or mental aspects of speech sounds of a particular language. Morphology The second component of language is morphology is the study of the structure or form of words in a particular language, and of their classification. Syntax The third component of language is syntax. Syntax is the study of the order and arrangement of words into larger units. Semantics The fourth component of language is semantics. Semantics is the study of how meaning is conveyed in words, phrases, or clauses. There are different types of semantics:

  • Lexical semantics : the meaning relationship between individual words (e.g.,synonymity: smart/ intelligent; or antonymity: rough/smooth).
  • Sentence semantics : the meaning resulting from the interaction of elements in a sentence, hence the relationship between syntax and semantics (e.g, the different meanings of the subject of a sentence: the agent of a change "Jill closed the door", or the entity undergoing a change "The door closed).
  • Discourse semantics : the meaning relationships holding among parts in an extended discourse. Pragmatics A fifth component of language, not part of the traditional subdivision but added in recent years, is pragmatics which is the study of the functions of language and its use in context. PHONOLOGY PHONETICS A subdivision of phonology is phonetics which studies the actual physical articulation of speech sounds of human language in general. -Phonology-> function of sound in language as a system -Phonetics-> physical/material production of sounds Phonetics is the study of the way humans make, transmit and receive speech sounds. It is divided in:
  • Articulatory Phonetics : the study of the way the vocal organs are used to produce speech sounds;
  • Acoustic Phonetics : the study of the physical properties of speech sounds;
  • Auditory Phonetics : the study of the way people perceive speech sounds.

PHONEMES

A phoneme is a distinctive sound in a language capable of creating a distinction in meaning between two words. IPA IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) is a system of recording sounds in which a single written symbol represents one and only one speech sound and in which a single sound is represented by one and only one written symbol. MINIMAL PAIRS A minimal pair is a set of different words consisting of all the same sounds except for one. They are used to demonstrate that two phones represent two separate phonemes in the language. If we replace the phoneme /d/ in dog (dog] with the phoneme /1/, we obtain the word /og (log]. We could set up a phonetic environment (or a sequence of sounds) such as an environment containing the sound sequence/æt/. MINIMAL SET We have a minimal set when a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position in the word), then we have a minimal set. HOMOPHONES AND HOMOGRAPHS

  • Homophones : words which are pronounced the same but spelled differently, such as bear/bare (bea], meat/meet [mit], or maid/made [merd]
  • Homographs : words that are spelled the same but pronounced differently, for example, lead [li:d] (condurre) e lead (led] (piombo); tear [tra] (lacrima) and tear [tea] (strappare). BASIC TERMINOLOGY
  • Graphemes : alphabetic signs which are independent from sound, enclosed within guillemots (or angle quotes) <>
  • Phones : sounds that are independent form their role in the phonological system of a given language, enclosed within square brackets []
  • Phonemes : units capable of constituting meaningful oppositions in a given language system, enclosed within slashes // CONSONANTS A consonant is defined as a speech sound which is articulated with some kind of stricture or closure of the air stream. Consonants are classified according to four features:
  1. the state or position of the glottis : in vibration (voiced) or open (voiceless);
  2. the state of the velum : lowered (nasal) or raised (oral);
  3. the place of articulation : the location where the stricture or place of maximum interference occurs, and what articulators are involved;
  4. the manner of articulation : the amount of stricture, whether it is complete, partial (called "close approximation"), or relatively open ("open approximation").

STRESS

Stress is the relative prominence given to a syllable. Words with more than one syllable carry an accent or stress on one syllable.

  • Vowel length is a characteristic of stressed syllables
  • Unstressed syllables have shorter vowels (often reduced to /ə/) -In connected speech we focus on stressed syllables rushing the less important ones
  • In polysyllabic words with /r/ in unstressed syllable, the vowel preceding /r/ disappears /‘dik∫ənəri/-> /'‘dik∫ənri/ STRESS-TIMED VS SYLLABLE-TIMED LANGUAGES Different languages fit their syllables into the beat in different ways. Syllable-timed languages tend to give syllables approximately equal prominence and generally lack reduced vowels (e.g, Icelandic, Cantonese Chinese, Georgian, French, Welsh, Italian, Turkish and Spanish). In other languages, known as stress-timed languages , the length of the syllables varies, and so the time of an utterance depends on the number of stressed syllables, rather than the total number. English is a stress-timed language. The interval between one strong beat and the next is said to be isochronous (that is, each chunk is given, approximately equal amount of time).
  • Rhythm has important consequences on the incidence of weak sounds , which typically occur in unstressed syllables.
  • Tonicity is the assignment of rhythmic prominence. RHYTHMIC SHIFT IN STRESS A shift in stress happens (without changing meaning) when a lexical item acting as adjective precedes a noun in order to avoid two stressed syllables occurring in close succession Unstressed words tend to be function words, meanwhile content words contain a stressed syllable SENTENCE STRESS As in polysyllabic words we find primary and secondary stress, in sentences some words have stronger stress than others (usually those providing new or important information) Most sentences have two basic types of word:
  • Content words : are the key words of a sentence. They are the important words that carry the meaning or sense the real content.
  • Structure/function words : are not very important, they are small, simple words that make the sentence grammatically correct. They give the sentence its correct form - its structure. CONTRASTIVE STRESS Sometimes we emphasise one word rather than another in order to make intended meaning clear, and we call that contrastive stress. PITCH AND INTONATION Intonation is the variation of voice pitch in connected speech.
  • Tonality refers to the segmentation of longer stretches of connected speech into shorter meaningful chunks.
  • An intonation phrase is an utterance with its intonation pattern (tone) and a nucleus (punctuation roughly reflects the segmentation in chunks).
  • The nucleus is the syllable receiving the greatest prominence and carrying intonation movement (usually the last prominent lexical word in an intonation phrase) RHYTM AND INTONATION Rhythm is about how we use a combination of stressed and unstressed words in sentences. Intonation is the way the pitch of a speaker's voice goes up or down as they speak. Intonation plays an important role in grammar and discourse, influencing the meaning of large stretches of speech. A tone may be rising or falling, or a combination of these; the rise and fall of pitch throughout is called its intonation contour. Main functions of intonation are:
    • Attitudinal which helps to express feelings and attitudes
    • Grammatical which helps to identify grammatical structure in speech
    • Accentual which helps to draw attention to what meaning is given in an utterance
    • Discourse which is cohesive and connected to accentual CONNECTED SPEECH In spoken language there is no pause corresponding to the gap between written words. In spoken language, phonetic variability is caused by the influence of the phonetic environment, rhythm and the speed of the utterance. There are 5 main aspects of connected speech: similitude, linking, assimilation, elision and vowel reduction/weak forms, however sometimes you find them all listed under the umbrella term "assimilation". SIMILITUDE We have a similitude when there is an accommodation in the articulation of a sound segment to an adjacent segment, so that they become similar: (ex. eighth [eitθ], [t] is dental (not alveolar) because of its proximity to dental [θ] We call a nasalization when a nasal quality is added to a sound segment located before a nasal sound. LINKING We call it linking when the ending consonant sound of a word is carried over to initial vowel sound of the successive word.
  • Leave early /li:v’3:li/ The process of making one sound almost at the same time of the next one is called co- articulation. There are two different co-articulation effects described as elision and assimilation. ASSIMILATION Assimilation is the replacement of a sound with another one owing to the influence of an adjacent one. Assimilation can be progressive or progressive. Progressive : the precedent sound modifies the successive. Regressive : the opposite.

TYPES OF MORPHEMES

  • LEXICAL morphemes = express lexical meaning. These are noun, verbs, adjectives or adverbs, and are frequently called content words. They are an open category (i.e., new members can be added) and are generally independent words (free roots) or parts of words (derivational affixes and bound roots).
  • GRAMMATICAL morphemes = express a limited number of very common meanings or express relations within the sentence. They can be parts of words (inflectional affixes) or small but independent function words, such as prepositions, articles, demonstratives, conjunctions, auxiliaries, and so on. They are NOT an open category (i.e., their number is finite and they can be exhaustively listed). Their occurrence is (entirely) predictable by the grammar of the sentence because certain grammatical meanings are associated with certain lexical categories (e.g., tense and voice with the verb; or number and gender with the noun). AFFIXATION ● Affixes are bound morphemes ● Two types of affix: inflectional and derivational TWO CREATIVE PROCESSES INFLECTION inflection is the process of adding very general meanings to existing words, not the creation of new words. Words do not change class In English there are only inflectional suffixes (only 8) which are added to nouns, verbs and adjectives DERIVATION Derivation is the process through which existing words become new words. Words change class. When we are dealing with complex words (words composed of more than one morpheme) we can usually identify one morpheme that contributes to the meaning of the word more than the others. This is called the core morpheme , or stem. Words are generally considered to be the basic element of language. They are independent in their role in larger units, Types of WORDS

⁃ Lexical words (e.g. nouns, lexical verbs, adjectives, adverbs) - main carriers of

information in a text or speech act.

⁃ Function words (e.g. prepositions, coordinators, auxiliary verbs, pronouns) - help us to

interpret units with lexical words by showing how the units are related to each other.

⁃ Inserts (e.g., Hm hm, wow, oh, ah, yeah, well...) - mainly in spoken language, carry

emotional or discoursal meaning. Word formation is the process in which a language creates new words from other words. There are different methods of formation which are: reduplication, conversion, compounding, clipping, blending, backformation and shortening. REDUPLICATION Reduplication is a process similar to derivation, in which the initial syllable or the entire word is doubled. In English it is often used in children's language (e.g. boo-boo, putt-putt, choochoo) or for humorous or ironic effect (e.g. goody-goody, rah-rah, pooh-pooh).

Three different kinds of reduplication can be Identified;

  1. exact reduplication : papa, mama, goody-goody, so-so, hush-hush, nevernever, tutu, fifty-fifty, hush-hush;
  2. ablaut reduplication in which the vowel alternates while the consonants are identical: crisscross, zig-zag, flip-flop, mish-mash, wishy-washy, clip-clop, riffraff, achy-breaky, and
  3. rhyme reduplication in which the consonants change while the vowel remains the same: hodge-podge, fuddy-duddy, razzle-dazzle, boogie-woogie, nittygritty, roly-poly. hob-nob, hocus-pocus Reduplication has many different functions: it can express disparagement (namby-pamby), intensification (super-duper), diminution (teeny-weeny), onomatopoeia (tick-tock), or alternation (ping-pong), among other uses. CONVERSION Conversion (also known as functional shift or category change ) is the process in which we change a word from one-word class to another It involves the conversion of one part of speech to another without the addition of a suffix, as in a phone (N) > to phone (V). The following kinds of conversion are most common in English. V > N (a) run , drive , walk , bruise , cut , look , call , dump , spy , bite , sneeze N> V (to) man , head , shoulder , telephone , lust , contact , ship , sign , skin , mail Adj > V (to) weary , better , empty , idle , dirty , bare , quiet , tame , lower Adj > N (a) daily , double , private , commercial , formal , red , elder , roast COMPOUNDING Compounding refers to the combination of nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs or prepositions to form complex words. A compound is the combination of two or more free roots (plus associated affixes). Often the semantics of compounds are not simply a sum of the meaning of the parts; that is, if we know the meaning of the two roots, we cannot necessarily predict the meaning of the compound, as in firearm, highball, makeup, or handout.
  • Common English compounds are bookcase , doorknob , fingerprint , sunburn , textbook , wallpaper , wastebasket and waterbed.
  • All these examples are nouns, but we can also create compound adjectives ( good- looking , low-paid ) and compounds of adjective (fast) plus noun (food) as in a fast- food restaurant or a full-time job. CLIPPING
  • Clipping occurs when a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form, usually beginning in casual speech.
  • An example is the term gasoline , which is still used even though most people talk about gas , using the clipped form.
  • Other common examples are ad (advertisement), bra (brassiere), cab (cabriolet), condo (condominium), fan (fanatic), flu (influenza), perm (permanent wave), phone (telephone), plane (airplane) and pub (public house).
  • A particular type of reduction, favored in Australian and British English, produces forms technically known as hypocorisms. In this process, a longer word is reduced to a single syllable, then -y or -ie is added to the end. This is the process that results in movie ("moving pictures") and telly ("television").

1) DIACHRONIC VARIATION

It refers to the variation of a language over time SYNCHRONIC : in terms of differences within one language in different places and among different groups at the same time. 2) DIATOPIC VARIATION It refers to linguistic variation on a geographical level 3) DIASTRATIC VARIATION It is the variation of a language according to the social class or the group the speaker belongs to. 4) DIAPHASIC VARIATION It refers to the stylistic variation of a language, that is its variation according to the situation. 5) DIAMESIC VARIATION It is the variation of a language depending on the medium of communication. THREE VARIABLES OF DIALECT

  • Geographical : where the speech community is based (diatopic variable)
  • Social: what social group/s the speech community belongs to (diastratic variable)
  • Temporal : in what time (present or past) the speech community exists (diachronic variable) WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AN ACCENT AND A DIALECT? ACCENTS : describe the way people pronounce words. Most British English speakers have a regional accent. The place where they live influences the sound of their words. DIALECTS : describe the differences in vocabulary (words) and grammar (the way words are put together into sentences) between different versions of a language. LANGUAGE VARIATION Two major types of language varieties: registers and dialects.
  • Registers are varieties of language that are associated with different circumstances and purposes (e.g., conversation, fiction, newspapers and academic prose);
  • Dialects are varieties according to the identity of speaker(s) or writer(s) —their geographic area, gender, socio-economic class, and so on. REGISTER is a conventional way of using language that is appropriate in a specific context, which may be identified as situational (e.g. in church), occupational (e.g. among lawyers) or topical (e.g. talking about language).

SYNTAX

Syntax studies the way in which words combine to form larger units of meaning

Grammatical Unit

Grammatical units are meaningful elements which combine with each other in a

structural pattern —> grammar is the system which organizes and controls these form

  • meaning relationships.

Graded according to size:

  • Sentence
  • Clause
  • Phrase
  • Word
  • Morpheme

Sentence : consists of one or more clauses

'"'If I wash up all this stuff somebody else can dry it"

Clause : consists of one or more phrases

"Somebody else can dry it"

Phrase : consists of one or more words

"somebody else", "can dry", "it"

Word : consists of one or more

morphemes

"somebody"

Morphemes : parts of words, i.e. stems, prefixes and suffixes

Some-body

PHRASES

A phrase contains more than one word.

There are different types of phrases based of their most important element:

  • Noun phrases : can have as the head of the phrase nouns, pronouns and

occasionally adjectives.

The parts of a noun phrase:

  • The head : is the most important constituent, it controls any agreement with

other parts of sentence.

  • The determiner : appears before the noun. It decides what kind of noun is in the

phrase (definite or indefinite, proper or common, count or noncount). Words such

as “a”, “those”, “some”, and “any” are determiners.

Those which appear before the determiner are called pre-determiners (such as “all”

and “twice) and those which immediately follow the determiner are called post-

determiners.

  • The pre-modification : comprises any other words appearing between the

determiner and the head noun, mainly adjectives or adjective-like noun.

  • The post-modification : comprises everything which appears in the phrase after

the head. The chief types are prepositional phrases, finite clauses, and nonfinite

clauses.

There are different types of VARIATION IN THE VERB PHRASE :

TENSE

The tense of the verb can change to express the time at which the action take place.

English has only two tenses: present and past.

PRESENT TENSE

Present tense is used:

  • for timeless statements.
  • for repeated events;
  • when the action begins and ends more or less at the moment of speech.
  • In jokes and imaginative writing.

PAST TENSE

The past tense is used:

 When the action has taken place in the past

  • when trying to give a more polite effect.
  • when using the hypothetical past;

FUTURE TENSE

  • There is no way to mark future tense on verbs in English, they are usually

marked with a modal (will or shall) or semi-modal (be going to) verb

ASPECTS

Aspect refers to whether the action of the verb is complete (perfective aspect) or in

progress (progressive aspect).

TWO VOICES

The voice refers to whether the action is performed or received.

  • in the active voice, the subject performs the action
  • in the passive voice, the subject receives the action

CLAUSE ELEMENTS AND TYPES

A clause is made up of one or more phrases.

The elements of the clause are:

1. Subject : which usually identifies the topic of the clause.

2. Verb : which is the central element of the clause and controls the other

elements.

3. Object : that is divided in: direct object which identifies who or what has been

affected by the action of the verb. Indirect object which identifies who or what is

receiving the action of the verb;

4. Complement : which gives us information about another element.

5. Adverbial : it usually adds information about the situation.

THE CLASS OF CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions are items which join clauses or parts of clauses together.

There are two types of conjunctions:

  • Coordinating conjunctions link units which have the same status in the

sentence (such as two clauses or two adjectives).

The chief items are “and”, “or” and “but”; and there are a few “pairs”, such as

“neither.. nor”.

These conjunctions signal such meanings as addition and sequence, the expression of

alternatives and contrast.

Coordination with “and” and “or” could continue indefinitely.

  • Subordinating conjunctions join units which do not have the same

grammatical status in the sentence.

The typical case is when one clause is subordinated to another.

Subordinating conjunctions far outnumber coordinating ones, and several consist of

more than one word.

THE PATTERNS OF THE CLAUSE

The valency of the verb (i.e. the pattern of clause elements that can occur with a

verb) controls the kind of elements that follow it.

There are 5 major valency patterns:

Intransitive (S + V)

Monotransitive (S + V + DO)

Copular (S + V + SP and S + V + A)

Ditransitive (S + V + IO + DO)

Complex transitive (S + V + DO + OP and S + V + DO + A)

TYPES OF SENTENCES

Sentences are made up of one or more clauses.

There are two types:

  • Major sentences follow the rules of grammar and is a regular sentence.
  • Minor sentences do not follow the rules of grammar and doesn’t have a main

clause