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An overview of conjunctions, clauses, and discourse markers in english. It covers the functions of various conjunctions such as and, but, or, so, because, and time connectors. It also explains the use of clauses of contrast, purpose, and reason. Examples and guidelines for using these elements effectively in english.
Tipologia: Dispense
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Conjunctions and clauses
And We use and for adding similar information or ideas; it means ‘too’ or ‘in addition’. Es. My brother is a plumber, and my sister is a teacher. They have an apartment in the city and a little house in the countryside. When we are connecting sentences, we don’t need to repeat the subject ( Tom, I, we, she, etc. ) Es. She got up and left. (=She got up and she left.) He was looking at us and smiling. (=He was looking at us and he was smiling.) But We use but for adding contrasting information , i.e. information that is different. Es. I studied a lot, but I failed the exam. He is good but not the best. Or We use or to connect different possibilities. Es. Would you like to go to the swimming pool or to the beach? He can go to a hotel or stay with us. We use or (NOT and ) in negative sentences to mean ‘not one thing and not another thing’. I don’t like oranges and lemons. I don’t like oranges or lemons. Use and, but, or to connect similar words or phrases. The items that we connect with and, but, or should be the same grammar type. Check these common mistakes: I like dancing and sing.
Although can be used at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. We do NOT use a comma after although; we use although + subject + verb. Es. Although he had a bad leg, he still won the game. I passed the exam, although I hadn’t studied. Reason Because We use because + subject + verb. Es. We had to cancel the concert because it was raining. I didn’t call you because I didn’t want to worry you. Because of We use because of + noun. Es We had to cancel the concert because of the rain. Many shops had to close because of the economic situation. Result So So is the most common connector to express result. It is normally used in the middle of a sentence after (,). Es. We worked hard all morning, so I am very tired now. The TV is very expensive, so I don’t think I’ll buy it. Time Before We can use before + noun / -ing verb , or we can use before + subject + verb. Es. Before I have breakfast, I read a few pages. Before having breakfast, I read a few pages.
Before breakfast, I read a few pages. After We use can use after + noun / -ing verb , or we can use after + subject + verb. Es. I smoke a cigarette after dinner/ having dinner/ I have dinner. When we are talking about consecutive actions , we can use then of after that , but we cannot use *after. Es. I got up and had a shower. Then/After that , I made breakfast. (NOT After, I made breakfast). While We use while + subject + verb to talk about actions happening at the same time, simultaneously. Es. I read the newspaper while I was waiting. As soon as, when, once As soon as , when , and once have a similar meaning. As soon as means ‘immediately when’. Es. As soon as/when/once I get home, I’ll finish my homework. We use the present simple, and NOT will , to express future after as soon as, when, and once. Es. When I get home, I’ll call you. (NOT when I will get home) We use a comma after the first part of the sentence when we start with before, after, while, as soon as, etc. But we do not use a comma if we use before, after, while, as soon as, etc in the second part of the sentence. Es. Before I go to bed , I brush my teeth. I brush my teeth before I go to bed.
They arrived despite/in spite of leaving very early. We can use a clause (subject + verb) after despite/in spite of + the fact that. Es. We went out despite/in spite of the fact that it was raining. Clauses of purpose To + infinitive The most common way to express purpose in English is to + infinitive. Es. The student worked hard to pass the test. In order to/so as to + infinitive In order to or so as to + infinitive are more common in formal English, mainly in writing. The negative forms are in order not to and so as not to + infinitive. Es. We were asked to stay in order to finish the project. He left home early in order not to be late. Use a plastic hammer so as to avoid damage. They walked quietly so as not to wake up the children. We can also use the structure in order for someone/something to do something. Es. We need to mobilize the media in order for the Government to listen to us. Three different surgeries were necessary in order for him to survive. So that + clause We can also use so that + subject + verb to express purpose. We normally use a modal verb with this connector, e.g. could , can , would, etc. Es. We left early so that we could park near the centre. He made some flashcards so that it would be easier for his mum to remember the instructions.
For + noun We can also use for + noun to express purpose. Es. We went to the bar for a drink. Would you like to go to the park for a run? We can use for + – ing verb (instead of to + infinitive) to talk about the purpose of an object or action when we use the verb used or when we imply it. Es. This knife is (used) for cutting plastic. Schools are for educating , not for entertaining. In case + clause To express purpose, we can also use in case + subject + verb. We use this form to talk about precautions, when we do something because something not wanted might happen. Es. Take the umbrella in case it rains. (=take the umbrella so that you won’t get wet if it rains) I won’t tell Ann in case she tells everyone else. Clauses of reason When we want to explain the reason why something happened or why someone did something, we use a clause of reason introduced by a conjunction ( as , since , because ) or a noun phrase introduced by because of , due to , owing to , or on account of. Because We use because before a clause (subject + verb). It can be used at the beginning or at the end of a sentence (at the end is more common). A comma is used when the clause of reason is at the beginning of the sentence. Es. We didn’t go because it was raining heavily. Because the event was cancelled, they lost their deposits. As/since We use as and since in a very similar way to because. They are followed by subject + verb and can be used at the beginning or at the end of a sentence. However, as and since are more formal expressions, and more common in written than in spoken English. Es. The government urged people to stay indoors since/as more rain is forecast for the entire weekend.
Animals were his only true passion. Therefore/Consequently , he decided to study biology. We can also use consequently and therefore in mid position (before the verb, after be as the main verb, or after the first auxiliary verb). Es. You have been a real asset to the company. We have therefore/consequently decided to promote you.
What are participle clauses? Participle clauses are not very common in spoken English; however, you can find lots of examples in written English, maybe because participle clauses can be very useful. They allow us to express condition, reason, cause, result or time in a similar way to full adverbial clauses , only with less words. Look at a couple of examples: Es. After she had finished the exam , she felt very happy. (time) Having finished the exam , she felt very happy. As she didn’t know where the theatre was , she asked for directions at the reception. (reason) Not knowing where the theatre was , she asked for directions at the reception. -ing participle clauses This is one of the most common participle clauses. We can use – ing participle clauses to refer to the present or the past. Es. As she was such a great singer , she didn’t have problems to find a job. Being such a great singer , she didn’t have problems to find a job. When I talk to you I always feel better. Talking to you I always feel better. Because I was walking quickly , I soon caught up with him. Walking quickly I soon caught up with him. Having + past participle clauses By using the perfect – ing participle clause you can emphasise that an action was previous to another. These clauses are commonly used to express the cause of a second action.
Es. Having lost all the games , he felt depressed. Not having eaten for hours , I was desperate to find a restaurant. It’s common to have the passive structure having been + past participle as an alternative to a since -clause (reason): Es. Having been unemployed for so long , he felt he would never find a job. (=Since he had been…) Having been offered a promotion , she decided to stay in the company. (=Since she had been…) Participle clauses can also follow prepositions or conjunctions: after, before, instead of, without, when, while , etc. This use of prepositions or conjunctions before participle clauses (mainly – ing participle clauses) is quite common: Es. Remember to take your bags when leaving the bus. Instead of listening to me , Tom left the room. After having lost many games , he felt depressed. I visited her after talking with her mother. People often use their phones while driving. Past participle clauses ( -ed /third column) Past participle clauses usually replace a sentence with a verb in the passive voice. Es. Found in a litter bin , the briefcase contained classified information. (=The briefcase was found .) Impressed by the painting , John praised the artist. (=He was impressed by the painting.) Founded 20 years ago , the company has received many awards. (=The company was founded 20 years ago.) Located in the city centre , the bar is very popular among tourists. (=The bar is located in the city centre) Note that these participle clauses can often be replaced by a relative clause: Es. The briefcase, which was found in a litter bin , contained classified information. John, who was impressed by the painting , praised the artist. The company, which was founded 20 years ago , has received many awards.
