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CHAPTER 3
PRESENTING SPEECH AND SPEAKERS: QUOTING VERBS
In this chapter we begin to provide tools for the analysis of more specific language and grammatical and visual features. The importance of carefully describing and analysing the way people are represented as sapeaking both in language and images.
QUOTING VERBS
Jane said/ whinged (si lamenta): ‘My house mates simply don’t do enough cleaning.’
Using said sounds much more neutral. Using whinged creates a real impression on the person as to the mood (umore), attitude (attegiamento) or character of Jane and therefore (quindi) creates the credibility of her comments. Quoting verbs can make evaluations of the situation. Quoting verbs can be used to provide information implicitly. These simply word choices can have a considerable impact on the way that authors can shape perceptions of events (Questi semplici scelte di parola possono avere un notevole impatto sul modo in cui gli autori possono plasmare l'interpretazione di eventi).
The management announced that striking workers would be punished.
The workers grumbled (brontolano) about problems with conditions.
The management said that striking workers would be punished.
The workers said about problems with conditions.
In the last two sentences, what is said is not evaluated. But in the case where announced and grumbled are used we are encouraged to make particular interpretations of the events. Those (coloro) who announce things appear to have power and legitimacy. Those who grumble appear to have much less of both (molto meno di entrambe).
At the contrary:
The management grumbled that striking workers would be punished.
The workers announced about problems with conditions.
Here the management appears unreasonable while the workers have a legitimate complaint (lamentela).
Quoting verbs:
- Neutral structuring verbs : introduce a saying (modo dire) in an implicit mode. Is important for authors to bring readers/listeners more or less near from the thoughts and feelings of certain social actors. One way to do this is to elaborate on their thoughts and feelings or their internal mental state.
- Metapropositional verbs : mark the author’s interpretation of a speaker (contraddistingue l’interpretazione dell’autore). Example: declare is an assertive verb, urge is a directive verb while grumble is expressive verb.
- Metalinguistic verbs : are where the kind of language used by a speaker is specified. Example: "is very hard living with all those people" Jane narrated. Here this can be used for ironic effect.
- Descriptive verbs : categorise the interaction. For example whisper (sussurro) and laugh mark the manner and attitude of a speaker in relation to what is being said (a ciò che viene detto). Whispering would suggest lack (mancanza) of power because she did not feel able to speak out.
- Transcript verbs : mark the development of the discourse (repeat) or to refer to other parts of the discourse (pause). These different verbs of saying can be used to do appear certain partecipants more authoritative or subservient, legitimate or non-legitimate. They can define the roles of groups of partecipants or events. Quoting verbs can consider some partecipants as having a negative attitude and others as friendly. Minority community leaders shouted (gridano) that they have suffered increased levels of abuse. Minority comunity leaders remarked (osservano) that they have suffered increased levels of abuse.
In the second case, the leaders appear moderate. While in the first sentence, the use of verb shouted makes them appear emotional and dangerous. Minority community leaders claimed (rivendicano) that they have suffered icreased levels of abuse. The use of claimed creates doubt. Minority community leaders explained (spiegano) hat they have suffered increased levels of abuse. The use of the word explain changes the meaning to decrease uncertainty. The use of the quoting verbs influence the way a reader wil interpret events and persons.
CASE STUDY 1 : Quoting verbs and implicitly implied guit.
This is a report in the British newspaper ‘The Daily Mail’ for the decision of British government to partecipate in the invasion of Iraq in 2003, where ex British Prime Minister and New Labour leader Tony Bair is questioned. Quoting verbs play a big role in the evaluation of social actors and the reliability of what they say. In this article, we find 13 cases of quoting verbs. These are: heckled (molestare), refused to express, insisted, cries (grida), rejected, tell, commented, replied, erupt (esplodere) and cry, booed (fischiare), shouted (gridare) and chimed (suonare). Only replied is a neutral structuring verb. In the text there are three participants: Tony Blair, the audience, and the Chair. The Blair’s comments are represented for the most part through metapropositional verbs. In all cases Tony is represented as a man who is being defensive. [He isn't look us, he's angry, the photograph took the actor from above].
He refused to express any regret (rimpianto) for the Iraq war and insisted Britain would be able to look back on the conflict with immense pride.
He explained any regret for the Iraq war and suggested Britain would be able to look back on the conflict with immense pride (orgoglio).
"Refuse to comment" or "refuse to express" sound as an indication of avoidance (evitamento) and therefore something to hide as a guilt. Where the text uses "insisted" we are given an impression of lack of confidence (mancanza di fiducia) and lacks credibility. Using the verb "explain" appears much more honest and confortable. The verb "tell" is a neutral verb but its use is without emotion. A lot of destriptive verbs are used to describe the negative reaction of audiance (pubblico) towards (nei confronti di) Blair: Heckled, cries, chimed, shouted, erupt and cry and booed are used to emphasise the anger (rabbia) of the audience.
In the image of Tony Blair : He isn't look us, he's angry, the photograph took the actor from above. We are not explicitate that the crowd (folla) was impatient and angry. This work was done by the quoting verbs. The viewer is invited to watch in the spectator role not in a way that encourages a personal relationship with him. We see Blair in a moment of what appears to be irritation because seem that he moves his finger. Tony Blair appears rigid. In this case, the control suggests tension and seriousness (gravità).
CASE STUDY 2: Quoting verbs and lack of agency.
The British Prime Minister at the time, New Labour leader Gordon Brown, represented as having little power. This text is from the newspaper ‘The Daily Mail’. This text explain a particular moment where Gordon Brown had written to the mother of a soldier who was killed in Afghanistan, but misspelled his name.
Gordon Brown spoke of his personal grief (dolore) at losing a child and he responded to criticism of his letter of condolence (condoglianze) to a dead soldier’s mother. At the beginning Brown spoke of his own experience of losing a child through a neutral verb " spoke ". He represents this with a transparent concept. Prime Minister suggested the terrible experience of his daughter Jane that is died at just ten days old. Here we find " suggested ", a metapropositional expressive, that appears as a lack of conviction, confidence (fiducia) or a lack of force. Here we can ask if the author of the text wants to represent Brown as weak (debole) and powerless or a man who was on the defensive rather than in control. Yesterday he reiterated (ribadito) his pain for her loss and said: ‘The last thing on my mind was to cause any offence’. This gives a sense of a man who is trapped (intrappolato) in a situation where people are not
MARIA CLAIRE woman looks up, she feels up about the possibility, she not look us, the photo invites only observes her.
COSMOPOLITAN woman look us, the viewer imaginary a relationship with her.
TONY BLAIR Blair, in a moment of irrititation, look someone pointing (puntando) the finger.
HEART OF ENGLAND the partecipants invite into a relationship.
POSES the postures of the artists suggest us something about them, whether they are friendly, indipendent or moody. The poses can tell us something about their identities and ideas. We can ask if a pose is open or closed. We can also ask if a pose suggests activity or stillness (immobilità). In the photographs where a person are jumping in the air or moves their arms gives us a sense of fun and energy.
MARIA CLAIRE the image appears creative, soft and gives us a senso of peace. She appears relaxed gazing out of the window, maybe a little bored.
COSMOPOLITAN the pose of the woman suggests activity. She doing nothing in concrete, but at the same gives a sense of fun and energy. Connote a female identity outside the mother and wife life. She have control of body.
TONY BLAIR Blair appears rigid, the control suggests tension, and his pose suggest aggressivity through the finger.
NICK CLEGG PHOTO he is in a relaxed pose and we have more sympathy in his regards (nei suoi confronti). The background is out, so we focus on him.
CHAPTER 4
REPRESENTING PEOPLE: LANGUAGE AND IDENTITY
This chapter tells about the representation of person through the language and identity. In any language there no exists a neutral way to represent a person. All depends of the identity of the person. Muslim man arrested for fraudulently claiming benefits.
Father of two daugthers arrested for fraudulently claiming benefits.
In the first the man is part of something that is problematic while the man that probably was born in Britain bacause is considered ‘one of us’. In the first case the reader can think that the fraud (frode) was understandable (comprensibile), instead the reader thinks that the father was struggling (combattendo) to protect her children.
The texts often use referential choices to create opposites and for to make events and issues more simply in order to control their meaning. Representational choices are always connected tovalues, ideas and activities.
The students hung around outside the shop.
The youths hung around outside the shop.
An author can use the second word (youths) to show anti-social behaviour or lack of respect. Youths is an overlexicalisation. Youth, and speciphically childhood, is often used in the press as a synonym for innocence and vulnerability. All these themes that serve to distract from concrete social processes and issues such as the drugs. The participants are often evaluated not on the basis of what they do but through representational strategies. Where a man is considered guilt, he will be referred to as a ‘sex fiend’, ‘monster’ or ‘pervert’. In this case he will attack innocent woman, such as a mother, a daughter or a worker. Monster is not human, that is a metaphor to implicate a negative vision. Instead when the man is considered innocence, the woman will be referred to as ‘blonde’ or ‘busty’. In this case she will have provoked an innocent man, referred to as ‘hubby’, ‘father of four’ or ‘worker’. These lables (etichette) help to define the nature of the crime, victimhood (vittimismo), and guilt with the consequences for the reader.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOCIAL ACTORS
To help us to be more systematic when describing referential choices, Van Leeuwen offers a comprehensive intentory of the ways that we can classify people and the ideological effects that this classifications may have.
1. PERSONALISATION AND IMPERSONALISATION. We can ask if the participant is personalised or impersonalised.
Professor John Smith requites accademic staff to give notification of strike action.
The university requires accademic staff to give notification of strike action.
In the second sentence the impersonalisation refers not a particular person but an institution that wants something. The second phrase conceal (nasconde) who is the responsible.
2. INDIVIDUALISATION VERSUS COLLECTIVISATION. It is also usefull to consider how participants are described as individuals or as part of a collectivity.
Two soldiers , privates John Smith, and Jim Jones, were killed today by a car bomb.
Militants were killed today by a car bomb.
In the first case, these soldiers are individualised. In the second case, the militants are a generic group.
Two soldier’s privates John Smith and Jim jones, both fathers of two daughters, were killed today by a car bomb.
This information allows us to feel empathy with the soldiers. Individualisation brings us closer (si avvicina) to the partecipants.
*private means a soldier of the lowest rank (di basso grado).
Terror suspect , both fathers of two daughter, were killed tday by a car bomb.
This collectivalisation reveal which group is humanised
3. SPECIFICATION AND GENERICISATION. We can also look if participants are represented as specific individuals or as a generic type.
A man , Mazar Hussein, challenged police today.
A Muslim man challenged police today.
9. PRONOUN VERSUS NOUN: THE ‘US’ AND ‘THEM’ DIVISION. Pronouns like ‘us’, ‘we’ and ‘them’ are used for or against particular ideas. The concept of ‘we’ is ambiguous because can conceal power relations.
We live in democracy of which we are proud.
They shall not be allowed to threaten our democracy and freedom.
We have to decide to be strong and fight this global terrorism to the end.
Pronous can be used stragically for conceal certain discourse, ex. Racism, in a way that there isn’t a responsible. “Yes, we can!” Obama slogan
10. SUPPRESSION. What is missing from a text is also important.
Globalisation is now affecting (sta interessando) all national economies.
Market-based economies (economie basate sul mercato) are establishing themselves in all areas of life.
In both these sentences the agent is missing. Globalisation is not something that has the power to change things, but is a theory that describe a process or phenomenon. In the second sentence, market-based economies are not agents but are a result of a particular political ideology.
CASE STUDY 1: Aggregation and suppression.
The first case study is a text from The Daily Mail. Muslim inmates sue the prison for millions after they were offered ham sandwiches for Ramadan. They say their human rights were breached. The prisoners must have a diet which meets the requirements of their religion. It is necessary to try to change conditions in the prison and make conditions better. This text fuses two frames in an ironic way that are typical of this newspaper. One is that prison inmates are treated far too well and that life inside a prison is like a holiday camp. Moreover (inoltre) the British are represented as the victims because they have not been able to adapt to the culture and values of Muslim. In this text there are four categories of participants: those who are complaining (lamentano) about the prison food, other prison inmates, those who are part of the prison service and a lawyer. The first category is represented always through the word ‘Muslim’. This term is overlexicalised. Every time a prisoner is mentioned, he is collectivised as "muslim prisoners" or "muslim inmates" or as individuals as in "one muslim inmates". Other prisoners are represented as ‘an inmate’, ‘kitche worker’, ‘the man’. Unlike the Muslim man these prisoners are not represented in terms of their religion or through nominal groups. In this case, it is clear that these participant ìs are backgrounded and anonymised. At the contrary The Muslims are represented as ‘others’, ‘offenders’ (delinquenti), ‘monsters’ or ‘thugs’ (teppisti). The people who work for the prison service are represented as ‘officiers’ and “spokesman” (portavoci) for the Ministry of Justice’. Here there is the use of functionalisation and honirifics. The prison system is represented as anonymus and official. Sociological and criminological research has demonstrates that prisons tend to be populated by the most vulnerable members of our society. For this reasons this story serves to position the Muslim prisoners as ‘other’ in our society with the use of aggregation. An example of aggragation: “scores of Muslim”, “more that 200 Muslim inmates”. The quoting verbs are the verbs used to represent how someone expresses something: Musim prisoners complained to prison officers. Some claim they were still filled with boiled ham. Insisting that their human rights were breached. Prison officers told that the menus had been printed in error.
The quoting verbs chosen for the Muslim prisoners here are metapropositional expressives. They are not simply "sayng" that they had inaropriate food, but are rather angry. The use of claim reduces the validity of their argument. We can see the difference if we substitute the quting verbs: Muslim prisoners reported to prison officers. Some explained they were still filled with boiled ham. Suggesting that their human rights were breached. The prisoners sound much more moderate and this appears as a simple narrative of the events.
CASE STUDY 2 : Different discourse genres of participants.
Here the analysis of representational strategies is dedicates to the careers advice of the women’s lifestyle magazine Marie Claire. The text explains the way to maintain career opportunities in times of economic down. This text is very powerfull. We can organise the social actors into four categories. The first are formal work terms (boss, manager, supervisor, co-workers, colleague), the second is a language more trendy (office hotshot, cheerleader, cubemate), the third are the fictional characters (Calandra, Poliyanna, Tracy Flick) and finally the personal pronouns (I, you, her, we). The images women work are not represent in real circumstances but as playfull fantasies. When details are replaced by abstractions we can claim that some kind of ideological work is taking place (sta avvenendo).
Use of the expression such ‘office hotshot’, ‘cubemate’ and ‘cheerleader’ play an important role because indicate that it's changing the way to see the world. One the one hand, we also find abstractions in the form of trendy language. We don’t about the particular job of the supervisor ABSTACTION. The analysis offered by Marie Claire does not refer to real concrete issues but is able to show concepts of determination, likeabilty (piacevolezza) and individuality. The use of personal pronouns is common in advertising and also in conversational language. In advertising, these pronouns help to personalise products and producers and their relationship with the consumer. In this texts, as in advertising, the word is reduced to a simple problem-solution formula. Everything is explained to a set of strategies. In this text fiction and reality are juxtaposed, if there is not a balance between fiction and reality there may be a problem.
CASE STUDY 3: Suppression of social actors.
In this text the landscapes are to be evaluated in terms of how they can be used for a specific activity; so there are expressions such as ‘poorly suited’, ‘soils are poor’, ‘long distance from market’, ‘land’s poor carrying capacity’. There is a very negative impression because the word "poor" is often repeated. This text
shows the suppression of social actors. For example: Attempts were made to establish irrigation agriculture around the Ord River in the 1960s. The land is used for little except extensive beef cattle grazing. The large size of the farms is needed because of the land’s poor carrying capacity. It was intended to produce cotton, sugar cane and rice in the Ord River Scheme. Is not mentioned the responsable, the agent of this actions. This text shows how the land can be exploited (sfruttata) for profit and not for its natural beauty. This text conceal the issues of the enviroment and the global warming (riscaldamento globale) that is becoming more widespread and acceptable.
EMDA ‘mission statement’
The vision of the East Midlands is to become a dynamic economy based on innovation and on knowledge of companies competing (concorrenti) in the global economy. The participants in this text are: ‘East Midlands Innovation’, ‘innovative, knowledge based companies’, ‘we’, ‘organisations’, ‘individuals’, ‘I’, ‘partners’, ‘ the strategic driver (guida strategica) of economic development’. The social events can be represented at different levels of abstraction or generalisation. At a low level of abstraction we can see clearly what processes there are and with what degree of causality are represented
