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English language II
syntax
Prof. :Cristiano Broccias
Material : book “an introduction to the english grammar” Elly van Gelderen +
course slides + English syntax Berk
CHAPTER I: introduction to english grammar, important differences
Knowledge can be
Implicit,acquisition through usage
The knowledge of L phonology,morphology,grammar and syntax is implicit
Explicit,acquisition through rules
The knowledge that a learner has about a language and he or she is conscious of and able to report in some way. Grammar can be
Descriptive
It describes how the language is used.
Prescriptive
It explains how the language should be used.
CHAPTER 2: Word classes.
Word classes/ categories are divided into
1)Lexical categories/ content words:
They carry the lexical meaning of a
sentence. It is an open category.
2)Grammatical category/ function
words:
They determine the syntax of a
sentence. It is a closed category.
Nouns —> In morpho-synctactic terms:
nouns are often preceded by “the”;
they can be pluralized and singularized
Verbs —> In morpho-syntactic terms:
verbs can express tens; at the 3rd
singular person they end with -s ; they
can be preceded by an auxiliary.
Adjectives —> they are modifer to
nouns. According to their position we
distinguish into attributive adjectives
( if they precede the noun they modify)
and predicative adjectives (if they
come after the copula verbs*1)
Adverbs —> They are modifier to
verbs, but they can also modify other
adverbs and adjectives (called in this
role degree adverbs)
Pronouns —> They replace nouns and
phrases (ex:”I’d like the blue jumper,not
the red one. ”). We recognize various
types of pronouns:
personal,possessive,reflexive,indefinite(n
ote that in some cases pronouns can
refer to something or someone that in
unknown, for example “ Someone nicked
my keys”),demonstrative,numerals, wh-
pronouns.
Determiners —> They are modifier to
nouns; Articles, possessive (genitive),
and demonstrative forms are all consid-
ered determiners.( !Attention! Don’t
confuse between det. and pronoun: a
determiner needs a noun to go with, a
pronoun doesn’t.)
Preposition —>They are invariable in
form and occur always before a noun.
they can be simple ( on,under,before etc. )
or complex ( on top of, next to etc. )
Conjunctions —> two types: 1)Coordinators, join two elements of the same kind ( and, or,but ) 2)Subordinators,join two clauses where one is subordinated to the other( that,because,if) Auxiliary —>They function to help another verb, they can’t occur on their own.They are divided into primary auxiliaries and modals*
NOTES
**1 COPULA VERB: Verb “be” and perceptions verbs. More at chapter 4 2 MODALS: Remember that modals express modality! (there is an exercise on modality in the exam!!) More at chapter 6
CHAPTER 4: Functions in the sentence.
Previously we saw phrases, labelled as NP,VP,AdjP,AdvP,PP, which are the
form of the sentence. Phrases have functions in the sentence, but the form of
a phrase and the function that a phrase plays in a sentence is something
different and should be kept separate.
FORM
NP
VP
AdjP
AdvP
PP
FUNCTION
Subject
Predicate
Complement
Adverbial/Modifier
—Subject and predicate:
Every complete sentence has a subject and a predicate. The subject is
usually realized by an NP ( and sometimes by a clause as we will see).
The predicate is always realized by a VP
Tests to determine the subject:
1)Inversion with the auxiliary
ex: The pig will want to eat soon” —> “ Will the pig want to eat soon?
2)Verb agreement
ex: The pig wants to eat —> The pigs wantØ to eat soon
3)Tag question
ex: Koalas are cute, aren’t they? This babyØ is cute,isn’t he?
—Complements:
A complement is a word, phrase, or clause that is necessary to complete the
meaning of a given expression. We have already seen that the VP has obligatory
complements (until an intransitive verb occurs). NPs, AdjPs,PPs can potentially
have complements.
Summary of complements:
1)direct object
2)indirect object
3)prepositional object
4)subject complement/predicate
5)object complement/predicate
6)object/complement of preposition
7)adjective complement
8)noun complement
9)verb complement
1)DIRECT OBJECT
The direct object answers to the question “what/who” about the verb.
For example: One million people saw (what?)—> last night’s documentary D.O.
She saw (who?) Thomas D.O.
The direct object can become a subject through passivization.
For example: Tom read the letter —> The letter(subject) was read by Tom
2)INDIRECT OBJECT
The indirect object expresses the goal or the beneficiary of the action of the verb. It
answers to the question “to whom/for whom”. It can occur with prepositions “to”
and “for” before the noun, or without prepositions.
For example:I gave Tom I.O. a letter/ I gave a letter to Tom (to whom? to Tom)
I made Harry some soup/ I made some soup for Harry (For whom? for
Harry)
6)OBJECT OF PREPOSITION
As we previously saw, the PP is made up with a preposition,which is the
head, and a NP always follow the preposition. The NP functions as object of
preposition (O.P.)
For example: To the moon O.P.
for you O.P.
7)ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENT
Adjective complements can occur only after the subject complement. They
are like “direct object” of the subject complement.
Look for it only if you see the following structure: [SUBJECT+COPULA VERB
+SUBJECT COMPLEMENT] What follows this structure is the ADJECTIVE
COMPLEMENT
If this structure is not present, also the Adj.C. is not present.
For example: Ginny (subject) is(copula) certain(subject complement) [that the
project will be a success] Adj.C.
Ed (subject) is (copula) ready(SC) to leave Adj.C.
8)NOUN COMPLEMENT
Noun complements occur with nouns which are verb-like. In a NP, there can
be only one complement.
! Don’t confuse the object of preposition with the prepositional
object!!! (the P.O. only occurs with prepositional verbs)
How to find a N.C.
1) The N.C. is always the
closest element to the
noun
2) If you change the noun
into a verb, the N.C. must
become a direct object/
prepositional object
3) Pronominalization: noun
+N.C. can be
pronominalized,other
elements can’t
For example:
A teacher of physics N.C. from
England
Their discussion about genetics
N.C.—> They discussed about
genetics P.O.
I know [the teacher of physics]
from England and the one from
France
9) VERB COMPLEMENT
A verb complement is realized by a clause. This clause functioning as V.C.
occurs after a direct object realized by a NP and it is required by the main
verb.
For example: A Tesco store has asked customers D.O. [not to shop] V.C.
barefoot
How to find a V.C.
1) The main verb is monotransitive and has a deontic force.
2) Structure: SUBJECT+MAIN MONOTRANSITIVE VERB+
DIRECT OBJECT realized by NP+ VERB COMPLEMENT
3) The V.P. is required for discourse coherence —> “A Tesco store
has asked customers.” the sentence without the vp is
incomplete.
—Predicate:
The predicate is always realized as a VP. We now see the different verb
types, distinguished depending on what object or object complements they
select.
Verb types
1)Intransitive —> NO object. example: " Sally was sleeping”
2)Monotransitive —> ONE direct object. “ Sally hates spiders D.O.”
3)Ditransitive —> TWO objects (one direct,one indirect) "Sally handed Tom
I.O. the document D.O.”
4)Copular/linking verb —> It carries the Subject Complement “Sally grew
tired S.C.”
5)Complex transitive —> It carries the D.O. and the Object Complement
“Sally named the baby D.O. Tracy O.C.
6) Prepositional verbs —> Verbs that select a preposition and carry
prepositional object
7)Phrasal verbs —> Verbs with a particle. If the particle is deleted, the verb
has a different meaning. Ex: get/ get up break/break down
8) Phrasal prepositional verbs —> Mixed type. ex: he can’t put up with this
noise
9) Non-finite verbs —> explained in chapter 6
Verb analysis : (pay attention to this, there is an exercise in the exam)
TENSE: PRESENT/PAST (no tense with non-finite verbs !)
ASPECT: PROGRESSIVE (be+ -ing)/ PERFECT (have + -en/ed/ irregular
form)
VOICE: ACTIVE/PASSIVE
MOOD: INDICATIVE (or unmarked) / IMPERATIVE/ SUBJUNCTIVE
MODALITY: DEONTIC/ EPISTEMIC/ DYNAMIC
Deontic modality:Constructions in which the speaker expresses volition or obligation and/ or attempts to direct the behavior of another. Epistemic modality: Epistemic modality expresses the speaker’s opinion about the sentence. It is needed to convert an impersonal fact to a subjective opinion about that fact. for example: Tom must have gone out = I suppose Tom has gone out. In other words, epistemic modality expresses the speaker’s behavior and opinion about the sentence Can be com- municated by auxiliaries, lexical verbs, and adverbs.
Dynamic modality: the ability or requirement of the subject to do something.
CHAPTER 6: Different types of clauses
1)Main clause:can stand alone as a complete sentence. 2)Embedded ( or subordinated clause) 3)Coordinated clause
- Non-finite clause
- Relative clause
1) Main clause: a main clause (also known as in independent clause) is made up of a
subject and a predicate that together express a complete concept. It can stand alone
in a sentence. For ex: I like koalas.
2) Subordinate clause: A subordinate clause is a clause that cannot stand alone as
a complete sentence because it does not express a complete thought, so it is
dependent to the main clause. It is typically linked to the main clause by a
complementizer(It is a word used to introduce a complementizer phrase
including subordinate conjunctions, relative pronouns, and
relative adverbs.), and it is represented as CP
( complementizer phrase).
Examples of subordinate clauses, the complementizer is
in bold:
She left [ before they arrived]CP The problem is [ that she left]CP I’m tired [ because I didn’t sleep]CP FUNCTION: Remember that subordinate clauses always have a function in a sentence. Examples: [That she left]CP is obvious —> CP functions as subject The problem is [that she left] CP —> CP=subject complement They know [why she left]CP —> CP= object They were sad [because she left]CP —> CP=adverbial
FORM:
CP
FUNCTION:
-Subject -Subject complement -Object -Adverbial
5) Relative clause: A relative clause is a clause that always follows the NP and
typically starts with a wh-pronoun(called relative pronoun because it introduces a
relative clause) or with “that”. The relative pronoun has the same referent as the
preceding NP (i.e. if the preceding NP functions as subj., the referent of the relative
pronoun is the subject, if the preceding NP functions as obj., the referent of the
relative pronoun is the object and so on.)
There are different types of RC:
- Restrictive RC: Restrictive RCs are used to restrict the possible referents of the preceding NP. In fact, they are usually used in cases in which the preceding NP has more than one potential referent. They don’t occur with proper nouns( because the referent is already clear) Example: I don’t know the studentNP [who is standing in the back]CP (So, if there is a group of students, you know that the one mentioned is the one in the back.)
- Non-restrictive RC: Non Restrictive RCs provide additional informations about the preceding NP and they are never crucial in determine the referent. N-R RCs allow us to introduce unfamiliar people into discourse by using a common NP or proper noun followed by explanatory material. Example: My uncle,[who is from Italy], lives in England= My uncle lives in England.
- Reduced RC: Relative clauses realized with non-finite clauses. Example: The girl [sitting on the bench] is Pam.
CHAPTER 7: Marked sentences
Unmarked sentence= A sentence that follows the following order: Subject-verb-object (SVO ORDER) Marked sentence= A sentence that doesn’t follow the SVO order, normally used to emphasize an element of the sentence. Types of marked sentences: 1)Preposing/fronting/topicalization: emphasis placed on the topic or focus of a sentence by preposing it to the beginning of the sentence. Example: “This one she accepted” ORDER: OSV Unmarked: She accepted this one 2)Postposing/end shifting: The object or another element is shifted at the end of the sentence, and the sentence doesn’t follow the SVO order anymore. Example: “I made without delay all the changes” ORDER: S+V+modifier+O Unmarked: “I made all the changes without delay” 3)Left dislocation: An element of the sentence is dislocated to the left, and then is repeated by a pronoun. Example:” That money I gave to her, it has disappeared Unmarked: That money I gave to her has disappeared. 4)Right dislocation: An element of the sentence is dislocated to the right, and it is preceded by a pronoun. Example: They are still here, our friends Unmarked: Our friends are still here. 5)Inversion: The order of two elements of the sentence is inverted. Example: Seldom have i seen such things Unmarked: I have seldom seen such things. 6)Extraposition: An extraposition is a construction in which a clause that acts as a subject is moved (or extraposed) to the end of the sentence and replaced by dummy it (or empty it) in the initial position. Example: It is important to book early. Unmarked: To book early is important. 7)Cleft: A cleft sentence is a complex sentence in which a simple sentence is expressed using a main clause and a subordinate clause. Example: It was Tom that broke the window. Unmarked: Tom broke the window 8)Pseudo-cleft: Pseudo-cleft sentences are similar in function to cleft sentences, but they are formed with the pronoun “ what “ Example: What Tom broke was the window Unmarked: Tom broke the window **9)Passive
- Interrogatives and exclamations** Extraposition always begins with “it” Cleft structure: It […] that [….] Pseudo-cleft structure: what-clause+ “be”+ phrase
Remember the hierarchy!!!
the modifier is always sister to X’
the complement is always sister to X.
In this example:
—“young” is a modifier to “lady”, so we put
the AdjP sister to N’
—“ in the cafe” is an adverbial and it modifies
the verb “ wrote”, so we put the PP sister to
V’
—“an email” is the complement of the verb
“wrote” (it is a direct object), so we put the NP
sister to V
Tree for a subordinate clause
The subordinate is represented with CP
CP head with C and S daughter is a fixed
structure.
Trees for non-finite clauses
- Full non-finite
- Non-finite without complementizer
- Non-finite without complementizer and subject
Trees for relative clauses:
- Restrictive relative: 1a)Relative pronoun as subject 1b)Relative pronoun as object 1c) Preposition stranding( syntactic construction in which a preposition occurs at the end of a sentence) 1d)Pied piping ( syntactic construction in which a preposition is moved to the front of the sentence)
- Non-Restrictive relative
- Reduced relative: 3a) RRC with infinitival 3b)RRC with past participle 3c) RRC with present participle 1a) Relative pronoun as subject—> we indicate the subject position in the relative empty Ø [(the president) founded this organization] 1b)Relative pronoun as object—> we indicate the object position in the relative clause empty Ø [I met (the man/that)]
1b)
1c)
1a)
you heard the rumor (about the man/about whom) I waved at (the man/ who)
1d)
(My uncle/ who) is from England
Word classes content/open-class words or lexical categories function/closed-class words or grammatical categories determiner noun auxiliary verb coordinating conjunction/coordinator adjective subordinating conjunction/subordinator/complementiser adverb pronoun preposition (simple vs. complex) preposition (simple vs. complex) particle/adverb/intransitive preposition particle Form and function Form Function NP complement subject VP direct object VGP indirect object AP prepositional object AdvP subject complement/predicate PP object complement/predicate S object/complement of preposition CP/S' noun complement SC adjective complement verb complement modifier e.g. adverbial (adjunct, disjunct, conjunct) Verbs transitive, ditransitive, intransitive, complex transitive, copular (stative vs. dynamic), prepositional, phrasal, phrasal prepositional Tense present, past, / Aspect progressive, perfect, / Voice active, passive, / Modality deontic (incl. volition), epistemic, [epistemic volition,] dynamic, / Mood indicative (or unmarked), subjunctive, imperative, / [NB. The symbol “/” means “not marked”, which isn’t the same as “unmarked”.] Marked sentences preposing/fronting/topicalisation postposing/end-shift left dislocation, right dislocation inversion extraposition (including discontinuity) cleft pseudo-cleft passive
SUMMARY
LIST OF DETERMINERS
