Investigating Specialized Discourse: A Study of 17th Century English Texts - Prof. Zago, Sbobinature di Lingua Inglese

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investigating specialized discourse, gotti

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investigating specialized discourse, gotti

Investigating specialized discourse, M. Gotti

I. Defining the notion of “Specialized Discourse”

In the 1920s-1930s, scholars belonging to the Prague school turned their attention to the ‘fuctional style’ which characterises scientific and technical discourse. Their approach was conservative, they intended to classify such discourse at a lower level, totally separate from the language of everyday use. Scholars researched a clear-cut (palese/evidente) definitions of the differences between specialized and general discourse. The specific features of word morphology and formation indicated in those studies are not limited to scientific or technical discourse, though they show more frequently and regularly in such varieties. Research into the concept of ‘register’ published after Second World War attempted to identify the morphosyntactic, lexical and stylistic features that characterise specialized discourse. The transition from an uncontextualised view of language, typical of the Chomskyan tradition (in 1960, the linguist Noam Chomsky proposed a revolutionary idea: We are all born with an innate knowledge of grammar that serves as the basis for all language acquisition. In other words, for humans, language is a basic instinct. The theory, however, has long been met with widespread criticism), to its perception as a highly flexible means of communication employed in different situation placed the study of specialized discourse within the wider spectrum of situational contextual varieties. The view taken by such studies has led to several taxonomies and typologies seeking to isolate the distinctive features of each situational variety; in particular, they focus on the link between the receiver and the type of communicative or social relatonship established, while highlighting the synchronic varieties shaped by geographic, social or situational factors. Register studies by British linguists often signal a keen (diligente/scrupoloso) interest in the autonomy of specialized discourse as compared to general language. Register analysis turned its attention to the description of any feature that diverges from the default level of common language. Scholars generally concentrated on the lexical dimension, which is clearly the most marked. There is far more than a straightforward (semplice) lexical distinction at the root of specialized discourse. Register analysis has helped to shift the researchers focus from principally statistical-quantitative approach to a mainly ‘qualitative’ approach, which seeks to identify the peculiarities of specialized texts in a perspective that is not only microlinguistic but takes into account the discourse in which they are embedded (includere). It also happens that specialized languages are often assigned certain features which do not qualify the mas subsystems but as varieties originate from other factors within their sociolinguistic setting. This is the case of the ommission of contracted forms in English technical language, which is due not to its being a specialized type of discourse as such, but rather to the formal variety employed in most written texts. This does not imply that several features cannot coexist within the same text. What matters (L’importante) is that no confusion is made between the distinctive elements of specialized discourse and features due to other factors. The communicative situation combines several contextual factors, making it difficult to attribute a given linguistic peculiarity to a single originating factor. This awareness (consapevolezza) has led to the identification for each specialized language of textual genres linked to sets of consistent features. Infact, many scholars have tried to group together the contextual factors capable of identifying the parameters which distinguish different genres within a specialized language. This interrelationship between various contextual factors has led scholars to examine specialized discourse according to a coordinate system with a horizontal dimension concerning the disciplinary domain dealt with and a vertical dimension relating to its sociological ‘layer’.

1. The issue of terminology Another controversial aspect is the term used to define its object. The choice of terminology may appear secondary but is in fact central, because of the close link between term and referent which also reflects different ways of looking at language from a theoretical point of view. Sometimes specialized discourse has been thought comparable to the notion of ‘restricted language’, although the term is applied in particular to restricted codes that employ certain sentences of general language in specialized communication. Elsewhere the term ‘special languages’ has been used, but this should denote languages with special rules and symbols deviating from those of general language. Its could also be applied to languages sharing the communicative conventions of a given language but also possessing other conventions which are not part of these resources. For the sake of terminology, the terms ‘special languages’ and ‘specialized discourse’ should be kept separate because the latter (l’ultimo) is distinguished from general language not for its use of special linguistic rules absent from general language but for its quantitatively greater and pragmatically more specific use of such conventions. The term ‘microlanguage’ is also inappropriate for its reference to a microcosm lacking (carente) the expressive richness of standard language. Specialized discourse does not appear to share the constraints (limite) and simplifications assumed by more authors but possesses all the lexical, phonetic, morphosyntactic

investigating specialized discourse, gotti This list offers a concise overview of the different points highlighted by various scholars. Not all the criteria mentioned by Hoffmann are applicable to alla specialized languages. There are also inconsistencies in Hoffmann’s criteria: the need for clarity may conflict with simplicity, the need for unambiguous expression may at time make it impossible to ensure conciseness or abstractness. The issue is taken up by Sager (1980) who hypothesise three main criteria governin the choices made in specialized discourse: economy, precision and appropriateness. These are considered interdependent, in that maximum communicative effectiveness is achieved when the requirements of alla three are satisfied.

II. Lexical Features of Specialized Discourse

1. Monoreferentiality The term is used to signal that in a given context only one meaning is allowed. Every term signals a concept and effectively condenses the semantic value contributed by the defining process which generated it. The need for a single referent generally means that users are forced to create new terms, rather than use existing terminology, in order to define new concepts without ambiguity or misurderstandings. Monoreferentiality is limited to the disciplinary field in which a term is employed. Each scientific field adopts its own epistemology for theoretical speculation, and this implies specific languages that sometimes contain lexical items occurring also in other disciplinary contexts. The number of lexical items found in each specialized field is not particulary large. The relative dearth of lexical resources in each discipline is due primarily to the scientific community’s effort to avoid alternative terms for the same concept. 2. Lack of emotion Unlike words, terms have a purely denotative function. The tone of specialized discourse is usually neutral, as its illocutionary force derives from the logical, consequential arrangement of concepts and of supporting evidence rather than the use of emphatic language. The informative purpose of specialized language prevails over other traits (caratteristiche) typical of general language, lending (conferendo) professional communication a seemingly (apparentemente) cold and artificial tone. Lack of emotion prevails whenever a text is mainly informative. If the pragmatic purpose is persuasive, the emphasis on emotion surfaces also in specialized texts. 3. Precision Every term must point immediately to its own concept. This requirement excludes the resourse to indirect reference systems in specialized communication, through such devices as euphemish. 4. Transparency Its the possibility to promptly access a term’s meaning through its surface form. A considerable advantage afforded by this kind of system is its extension of the principle of trasparency also to other fields where the separate lexical components of a specialized term can easily be decoded to reconstruct the meaning of the whole word. Biology, for example, has taxonomies constructed along clearly-defined lines, whereby each item is generally classified by two terms: the first for its genus, the second for its species. One of the most widely employed devices ensuring transparency in specialized discourse is the use of conventional affixes, which have acquired precise values in each discipline as a result of the aforementioned (suddetto) systematisation and standardisation process. The structure of such affixes regulates the cataloguing of terms in logical categories but also allows the enlargement of each category within an open system that is both highly organised and codified. Despite the process of simplification and rationalisation, certain suffixes retain more than one meaning and function. 5. Conciseness Another criterion applied by specialistics is conciseness, which means that concepts are expressed in the shortest possible form. The need for conciseness leads to a reduction in textual

investigating specialized discourse, gotti surface, as for example in zero derivation, which allows the omission of affixes. Another neological process in this class is the merging of two lexemes into a single term. Another type of conciseness device observed in specialized languages is juxtaposition, which omits prepositions and premodifiers in nominal groups containing two nouns. Sometimes conciseness in specialized discourse relies on acronyms and abbreviations.

6. Conservatism One of the main principles asserted by 17th – 18 th century scientists was the need to redefine specialized concepts and replace existing terms with new ones, usually drawn from classical languages for greater monoreferentiality. The same innovative thrust is not found in all fields of knowledge. For some, such as the law, the trend is, instead, intensely conservative. Fear that new terms may lead to ambiguity favours the permanence of traditional linguistic traits, which are preserved even when they dissapear from general language. An amount of conservatism is also found in business language. 6.1 Reforming legal discourse Legal discourse has often been criticised, even by legal experts. Criticism of legal language is found also in literaly works, which often convey an extremely negative view of legal argumentation. Many magistrates and legal experts advocate an end to use of archaic formulae and obsolete lexis. The need for reform in legal language is especially felt as regards interpretative difficulties of statues and circulars, which target not only specialists but also the general public. In the 1970s, this need gave rise in the United States to the Plain English Movement, whose efforts to obtain a reform of legal language eventually convinced President Jimmy Carter to issue guidelines for the use of ‘clear and simple English’ in all government regulations. This change in language use was not limited to goverment documents but soon spread to other pubblic and private organisations, which revised the standard expressions allowed in their forms and contracts. It is in the fields of business and govermental documents that the simplifying and reorganising action of the Plan Language Movement has been more successful. The survival of archaic linguistic forma had been attributed, among other things, to the use of standardised formulae as a convenient smokescreen (copertura) for law-makers and lawyers unwilling to relinquish the ‘conforts of precedent’. Even less noble motives are alleged to blaster the conservatism and imprecision of legal language, which increases the amount of speculation for legal practitioners. Another, more ideological motive, is the preference of lawyers and lawmackers for obscure legal language as a means to retain their power over ordinary citizens, relying on exclusive access to hidden significance of laws and legal procedures. 7. Redundancy in specialized discourse Some specialized languages contain instances of redundancy, generally due to the pleonastic use of lexical items. This involves a violation of the principle of conciseness. Crystal and Davy’s analysis of legal discourse stresses the habit of English legal drafters to employ two interchangeable terms for the same concept. Each of these pairs (new and novel, false and untrue) clearly consits of a neo-Latin term coupled with an Anglo-Saxon parallel – a practice rooted in the age following the Norman Invasion, when England had two spoken languages. The naming of concepts through both languages ensured comprehension by all sectors of the population. Another case of redundancy is the repetition of a concept through its negated opposite, as in the expression within and not exceeding two months. Some cases are apparently unaccountable by standard interpretative resources but may be explained in diachronic terms, as in the past terms did not always possess their present-day meaning: words that now appear synonymous could be semantically distinct in earlier centuries. Their combined use could help ensure semantic coverage of the whole target meaning. A degree of redundancy may be observed in the expression to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth, used in the oath (giuramento) taken by witnesses in court. The formula may sound highly tautological and even misleading, for it may imply the presence of different types of truth: whole or partial. Apart from these historical considerations, legal English clearly retains to this day examples of redundancy. 8. The relationship with general language Semantic evolution very often originates from the specialisation of word meanings in the general language. The specialization of words borrowed from everyday language was particularly intense in the 17 th and 18th centuries, when rapid technological and scientific development made it necessary to estabilish a specific lexis for separate disciplines and phenomena. The impact of technology and scientific discoveries was strong that the secondary meanings added to such terms over the last two centuries have in fact displaced their semantic priorities and now the specialized meaning often prevails over more general interpretations. Examples of this are the

investigating specialized discourse, gotti

III. Syntactic Features of Specialized Discourse

Scholars investigating specialized languages have often argued that these are equipped with unique syntactic patterns which do not occur in general language. This impression is based on the inspection of various studies on the syntactic features of specialized discourse focusing on phenomena that are not unknown also in general language. Certain features may also occur in general language but their higher frequency in specialized discourse makes them typical only of the latter.

1. Omission of phrasal elements A very common way to make the sentence more concise is to omit one of its constituents. This does not prevent textual comprehension because the value of any omitted elements may be inferred from the context or reconstructed by reference to knowledge shared by the language community. There are many other cases where omission of phrasal elements in specialized texts is due to the need for conciseness. For examples, in the following excerpt from a technical manual, articles are often omitted to make the text more compact.

investigating specialized discourse, gotti

2. Expressive conciseness A part from the simple omission of phrasal elements, there are other linguistc devices which make the sentence denser. As evidence of this claim, a specific case will be discussed below: the linguistic strategies employed in English specialized texts to avoid relative clauses and make the sentence structure ‘lighter’. The rules that allow for such devices are not limited to specialized discourse but are found also in general language. Indeed, a first possibility commonly employed in specialized texts is the substitution of relative clauses with adjectives usually obtained by means of affixation. Another device commonly adopted to simplify a relative clause containing passive form consists in omitting its subject and auxiliary. This is particulary frequent when the relative clause refers to a concept explained previously. The passive construction is also avoided. If the agent is to stated, it is placed before the past participle. These processes obey the criteria of conciseness and trasparency. When the passive formi s modifed by an adverd, the latter is joined by means of a hyphen to the past participle of the verb and placed before the noun. When the verb of the relative clause is followed by the adverbial phrase in this way, this expression is substituted by thus or so, which is placed before the past participle of the verb. Thus and so are not only used to avoid a relative clause, but also to avoid awkward coordinated clauses joined by the expression and in this way. Another adverb commonly used in Englis to avoid a relative pronoun is whereby. Another strategy to reduce the complexity of a sentence consists in the transformation of the verb of a relative clause into a presente participle. 3. Premodification The phenomenon of relative clause reduction shows a frequent switch from postmodification to premodification. English can easily employ right-to-left construction, which shortens sentences and makes the noun phrase especially dense. A distintive aspect of the right-toleft pattern is nominal adjectivation, that is the use of a noun to specify another with an adjectival function. Specialists show a preference for nominal adjectivation, which not only makes exposition denser also attaches great semantic weight to the compound. The maximum number of items is generally six, due to the human mind’s limited capacity for short-term memorisation. The decoding of long nominal grups poses a major interpretative challenge for the adressee, who is forced to identify the semantic-syntactic link between different groups. This kind of division is possible if the addressee draws not only on his awareness of syntactic rules but also on his knowledge of the semantic value of each word within the compound – a knowledge associated with his specialised training. There are indeed various cases n which noun compounds may be interpreted n different ways. Linguistic competence alone is not sufficiente and has tobe integrated by specialist knowledge of the topic and of other factors. The hyphen is employed as a disambiguator to avoid multiple interpretations and it signal semantica links between works. The use of premodification offers advantages in terms of greater textual conciseness, offset by a loss of conceptual clarity. That ambiguity is often apparente rather than real, because specialist knowledge helps the addresse to rule out inappropriate meanings in the decoding process. The transition from postmodification to premodification allows the construction of more complex sentence. First through the device of relative clause omission (leading to verbal nominalization) and later through nominal adjectivation there is a transition from a subordinate clause to a nominal compund. Another advantage of premodification is its potential for concept formation. The combination of two or more terms produces not only a mere union of existing concepts but the premodification process often gives rise to a new concepts that alters their nature, adding new meaning and uses. In this light, the semantic value attached to each element of the compound loses its identify to produce a new entity, which in turn becomes a conceptual referent and a starting point for the emergence of new compounds. 4. Nominalization This involves the use of a noun instead of a verb to convey (comunicare) concepts relating to actions or processes, a use commonly referred to with the term ‘grammatica metaphor’ within Systemic Functional Linguistics. Specialized discourse makes frequent use of nominalization because verbderived nouns seem to reflect the parallel process whereby results are inferred from experiments and objects from their construction process. Naturally nominalization is not unique to specialized discourse, as it also occurs in general language. What makes it distinctive is its frequent use by specialists and the high level of pre/postmodification involved.

investigating specialized discourse, gotti common communicative functions found in specialized discourse usually call for the use of this tense. When the text is very complex and involves several communicative functions verb tenses and auxiliaries are found more widely and approximate their use in general language. This wide use of non-finite verbs is not surprising, since these help to compact the text’s expressive form. The -ing form also simplifies secondary concessive clauses, as it does not require the explicit mention of the subject when the latter is the same as that of the main clause. In specialized discourse also the infinitive occurs more frequently than in general language as it shortens the wording of the text. Another non-finite form very frequently used in specialized discourse is the past participle, as it may perform several functions. Suppression of subject and auxiliary is also possible with progressive forms. But while finite verb forms reach frequencies comparable with those of general texts, non-finite forms occur twice as often in specialized texts because of their greater potential for streamlined, more concise sentences.

9. Use of the passive Another widely-investigated featureof specialized discourseisits considerable useof passive verbs. In English, the passive is the main device used to depersonalise discourse. The pervasiveness of the passive may be accounted for by its usefulness as a depersonalising devise in specialized discourse, which generally emphasises the effect or outcome of an action rather than its cause or originator. Significantly, the agent is normally omitted in passive clauses, also because it is often the same for all the operations described. Sometimes the agent is omitted because there is no specific actor behind a given action: this accounts for stative verb forms expressing a condition rather than an event. Their surface form is similar to the passive but with the past participle used adjectively The passive is also important in textual terms, as it is normally employed to thematize the process, fact or action mentioned in a previous sentence, which makes the flow of information more effective and natural. The passive allows the thematic element to identify given information, while new information is normally presented rhematically. This sequence appears perfectly natural and the two elements are inverted only if the agent needs to be emphasised as the focus of an utterance. No purely syntatic explanation can account for the switch between active and passive voice. Both forms may be used within the same text for different communicative purposes. The choice is determinated by pragmatic-textual factors rather tha syntactic considerations. The widespread use of the passive in specialized discourse described by linguistists is not common to all text types. In legal contracts, for example, what matters most is not the set of rights and duties establised between the parties but rather the specific people bound to such rights and duties. When stressing the personal nature of legal obligations, but the best option is the active voice, which places the actor in thematic position. 10. Depersonalisation This is the tendecy to depersonalise discourse. Theirobjectivity rests on the assumption that principles and properties are suggested to the scientist by direct observation of phenomena. This inductive process is realised linguistically by reduction of the human element and personalisation of the experiment’s physical aspects. The phenomenon is signalled by such typical research-process verbs as demonstrate, suggest, highlight, indicate, confirm, etc. with inanimate subjects consisting of facts, events and elements. Halliday (1988) points tothe constant depersonalisation of English scientific language, a trend which has produced over the centuries a whole range og variously personalised different forms. The author referring to himself indirectly throughthird-person pronouns and such noun phrases as the author, the research team and others, or conveying his personal views to personalised forms of the type the book investigates; this article demonstrates, etc. Very often behind these depersonalised forms lurks the author’s fear of accountability. Even in specialized argumentative texts first-person pronouns are sometimes used when referring to the locutor, because the emphasis is often on authorial autonomy within the discipline. In this case the use of first-person pronouns is indicate of the effort to convince the reader by emphasising the argumentative structure of discourse. Once again we are confronted with different types of behaviour among authors, each leading to special syntactic options which in turn reflect a given pragmatic orientation. The investigation of syntax is extremely useful for understanding specialists’ behaviour because the syntactic construction of a language provides key evidence of its organisation of logical thought.

investigating specialized discourse, gotti

IV. Textual Features of Specialized Discourse

There are a number of features that distinguish specialized texts also from the textual standpoint (punto di vista). Many of these are peculiarities shared by all types of text and costitute a distinction in quantitative terms. In some cases, specialized texts seem to avoid the use of standard textual norms in favour of ‘deviant’ options whose motives this chapter seeks to address.

1. Anaphoric reference Various studies have shown that anaphoric reference is one of the most common devices deployed to increase textual cohesion, it forms the textual framework which accounts for a text’s constituent features. Here the repetition of such lexical items as Member Firm, Grantor and any (such) third party/parties is far more acceptable tha anaphoric reference through personal pronous. This preference stems from the need for maximum clarity and avoidance of ambiguity, a typical trait of legal discourse. At times, there is excessive recourse to lexical repetition even in cases where the risk of ambiguity is very slight or inexistent. This frequent recourse to lexical repetition also takes place in those rare cases in which the text employs anaphorical referential elements. This need of precision lies at the base ofanotherrelevant characteristic of legal texts, that is, the frequent recourse to the reference to the parts of the text itself, specifying in the clearest way the textual element being referred to. The need for maximum precision in legal language is confirmed by exophoric reference, with detailed specification of any contextual item mentioned in the sentence. Quite often specialized discourse not only deploys textual items to clarify or specifiy the relationship between different parts of a sentence but also uses cohesive devices to illustrate textual organisation or authorial intentionmore clearly. In this case lexical anaphora has a pragmatic function. 2. Use of conjunctions These items not noly add cohesion to texts, but also have a pragmatic function, which clarifies the purpose of the sentence that follows. After such expression as but, however, on the other hand and so forth, one expects a sentence semantically opposed to the previous one, with conjunctions like as, since, for, because and others generally introducing a reason or explanation. 3. Thematic sequence The sequence of thematic items and remantic items: this division overlaps (sovrapporsi) with the distinction between ‘given’ and ‘new’. The ‘given’ item is often the same as the theme. In English the theme of unmarked sentences is generally their subject and occurs initially. A standard paragraph sequence has each new theme referring back to the rheme of the previous sentence. The sequence of thematic and rhematic items in the text makes discourse both cohesive and coherent. Generally speaking, one can observe that in his thematic structure the specialist adopts the same conventions commonly employed in general language. 4. Text genres One of the phenomena that most distinguishes specialized discourse is compliance with the norms governing the construction of its different text genres. Genre not only provides a conventional framework but also affects alla other textual features and constrains their conceptual and rhetorical development, which in turn determines the linguistic choices made as the text unfolds. In the 1600s and 1700s there was a considerable growth in scientific newspapers and academic proceedings, which explains the success of shorter, more publishable genres such as the

investigating specialized discourse, gotti the names of the contracting parties only once in a preprinted contract, without having to add their whole name every time.

6. Speech acts One of the problems confronted by the analyst is how to profile certain speech acts within each parts of texts. In legal texts the wording oftex is crucial, as the use or insertion of a given expression may alter act’s value. Awill, for example, is valid only if it contains the phrase I bequeath, while a wedding’s validity requires the formula I pronounce you husband and wife. Language in law is probably more performative than in any other field. The mere statement of guilt or innocence pronounced by a judge makes the culprit guilty of a crime whether or not be actually committed it. The importance of speech acts with a performative orientation is confirmed by the following transcription of questioning in the courtroom, where the accused admits guit but only pleads guilty from a legal point of vie wat a later stage. 7. Argumentative pattern The highly-structured construction of specialized discourse is reflected also in its argumentative pattern. As the main purpose is to convince readers that the author’s perspectiveis the right one, argumentation proceeds in a straight line to achieve the perlocutionary effect inherent in this type of text. For this reason, text is organised according to a ‘compositional plan’ carefully designed to serve a given thesis. Given the highly persuasive value of language, authors use their linguistic skills to create consensus around their claims, taking up positions and expressineg judgements through a range of rhetorical and linguistic resources. The very notion of argumentation means that an author should offer new insights that contradict earlier opinions. Alternative claims are therefore presented in such a way that their logical inconsistency, inaccurancy or incompleteness are highlighted. The author adopts a highly explicit tone and convevys personal criticism. The indirect way of expressing criticism occurs whenever the author’s opinion is presented as an obvious conclusion to be drawn from his analysis. He usually points out where the problem lies, and then puts forward his claim. In order to emphasizehis commitment to the search for a suitable solution to the problem, the author often makes use of deontic modal verbs such as shall, will or would If personal or passive forms rather than active ones are used, the style is kept personal by the use of the possessive adjectives my and our. In dealing with a topic in a new and original way, the author often needs to invent new terms or redefine existing ones. This operation is usually denoted by the use of modal verbs such as must, shall and will In order to make his persuasive function more effective, the author sometimes appeals directly to his reader, although he usually employs a third person rather than a second person pronoun. The writer chooses not to mention the reader explicity for fear that he might regard this as a threat to face and therefore be unwilling to cooperate. He prefers instead to use more impersonal sentences. The subtlest and most effective strategy adopted by skilful writers is that which gives the reader the impression of not being conditioned by the author, while he is actually being led along the argumentative path which corresponds to the original compositional plan. The mastery of the writer is shown by his adoption of a more neutral tone and the use of less subject-oriented modality such as dynamic or epistemic. In this way he gives the impression that is conclusions are not imposed on the reader, but rather that they are logically drawn from the evidence produced or the argumentative strand presented. The two modals principally used to persuade the reader to tale this ‘mental leap’ from facts to conclusion are can and must. In this way, the author is not stating conclusions which might be perceived as presumable or probable, but as inferential statements adequately warranted by evidence.

investigating specialized discourse, gotti

V. The Development of Specialized Discourse in the 17th Century

The increasing need to use the English language for the expression of specialized texts caused a heated (acceso) debate in 17th century England, as the adoption of the other languages (Latin, in particular) was felt to be no longer suitable (adatta) for this purpose. The great methodological developments (sviluppo) taking place in that period determined the need for corresponding changes both in the ways of communicating the new discoveries attained (raggiunte) by means of innovative procedures and apparatus, and in the expensive tool (strumento) to be used to describe and argue about the new phenomena observed and analysed. The criticism of the methods traditionally adopted in the study of the sciences and implied (suggerita) a change not only in the approach to the observation and interpretation of the laws of nature, but also in the way in which phenomena ought to be described and opinions expressed. Galileo, for example, pointed out the need for a novel specialized language, quite different from ordinary speech and mainly based on mathematical principles. Bacon, for example, criticized the fact that in the scientific tradition based on the Aristotelian method the use of language was usually detached from the physical reality to which it referred. In his opinion the terms used in that tradition were not tested by any reference to reality. Bacon maintained that terms should correspond to data collected and reality observed, this being the only valid basis from the establishment of the laws of nature. There should be a strict relationship between the observational process and its representation, and a direct link should be estabilished between reality observed and verbal expression. In this relationship, however, priority must be given to reality over language.

investigating specialized discourse, gotti That is why in several scientific treatises (trattati) of this period we find a strong condemnation of methaphors, which were usually seen as deceitful devices. The avoidance of the use of metaphors led the specialist to condemn all forms of eloquence, commonly identified with figurative speech and stylistic embellishment. This strict reduction of the function of words to its mere denotational value led scientits to envisage a radical reform in the use of language, which for some implied a revision of the English tongue and for others the adoption of a completely new tool of expression. The proposal made in 1664 to create a British Academy “to improve the English tongue, and praticulary for philosophical purpose”. The latter proposal implied the use of languages other than English: either natural or artificial.

5. The evolution of the syntax of specialized texts The 17th century also showed interesting developments in the syntactic features of specialized texts. Unlike the lexical field, changes took place in a non-explicit way, as specialists were usually unaware (ingnaro) of the syntactic modifications that they were introducing into the language by means of their writings. The new perspective forced them to adapt its rules to their expressive needs. As Halliday’s (1988) analysis of some extracts from Newton’s Treatise on Opticks shows, certain syntactic changes took place in that period. As we can see from this passage, sentences were quite long, with very lengthy noun phrases preceding and following the verb. Moreover, the verb strated assuming the copular function usual in modern scientific English, where the verb merely links the very long nominal phrases coming before and after it. Each sentence was structurally simple, with few or no subordinate clauses, complyning with the modern preference for co-ordination rather than subordination in sentence structure. In the quotation above there is a large number of words referring to processes. This indicates a distinct preference for the use of nouns deriving from verbs. The increase in the use of nominalization was part of a gradual tendency towards a loss of importance of the verb, compensated by a growth of importance of the noun. This change was mainly for textual reasons, as the process of nominalization enable the scientists to include more information in the same sentence and guaranteed a better flow of discourse. This process promoted a better cohesion of the text by means of the recovery of the information given in the previous statement a the theme of the following sentence. 6. Conclusions This analysis of 17th century specialized texts has thus provided abundant evidence for the great increase in the lexis of the language to be used in specialized fields which made the English tongue more suitable for the expression of any kind of subject. This increase was obtained through the adoption of the various possibilities that the language offered for the formation of new words: addition of meaning to terms already in use, derivation from existing lexical items by means or affixation and compounding. Classical languages provided many affixes and combing forms for the formation of trasparent compounds. For the syntactic point of view, the centuries following the 17th have also developed and consolidated the features identified in Newton’s text, with an increase in the processes of nominalization and objectification of specialized discourse.

VI. Origins of the Experimental Essay

The experimental essay originated in the Early Modern English period as a result of a complex process of scientific evolution which determined the need for a new expository (esplicativo) genre

investigating specialized discourse, gotti to suit the new epistemic approach of 17th century ‘natural philosophers’. Their need could no longer be satisfied by the traditional essay, as this mainly followed principles and employed techniques of a prevalently literary type. The innovative characterisics shared the principle that the progress of knowledge could not be cased on the servile observance of traditional theory, but should rely on the observation of natural phenomena and accurate experimental activity. The years immediately following Bacon’s teaching witnessed the presence of both philosophical approarches: the deductive and the inductive. Some natural philosophers continued to write their works relying mainly on past authority, usually starting out from the citation of an ancient or medieval philosopher and demonstrating the correctness or incorrectness of his views by means of deductive theorical argumentations. Others, instead, based the evidence of their theoretical claims on direct experience and personal observation. This was the attitude taken by large group of scientists who in the 17th century promoted the formation of the Royal Society. These new researchers were convinced that many natural philosophers in the past had been anxious to provide explanations and theories before having enough evidence to base them on and emphasized therefore the need for an experimental approach, so as to collect abundant data from which correct generalizations could be derived. Another important aspect of the new scientific approach consisted in the need fot the both the procedures and the results of these experiments to be made known to the entire learned world. To carry out their communicative task, scientists needed a new expository form. Already Bacon, by means of the aphorism, had tried out writing device different from the traditional ones to convey personal observations relating to short and specific items; this form while useful for brief comments and reflections, was not deemed appropriate for the description of experiments. The other main forms available to the scientists were the essay, the dialogue and the treatise. The first had been used also for literaly or philosophical purposes, and therefore reatined some rhetorical features unsuitable for scientif purposes. The latter two were more suitable. The writing of treatises or dialogues was instead deemed inappropriate for tentative suggestions or early formulation of hypotheses. There was a need for a shorter form, which would offer the scientists the opportunity to report briefly experiments carried out, procedures followed, results obtained, and any personal comments. This genre would allow immediacy of communication, and would protect the writer from any accusation of incomplete theorical exposition, as its purpose would be mainly descriptive rather than argumentative. The lack of such a form would have detrimental effects on the growth of the sciences. The means of communication identified as appropriate for scientific purposes was the experimental essay, meant to enable the researcher to report his experiences with immediacy and precision.

1. The main features of experimental essays This part of the chapter takes into consideration the main features of Early Modern English experimental essays. The comments and examples provided to support each point are mainly drawn from Robert Boyle’s texts. The british scientist has been selected as a paradigmatic figure both because of the specific metatextual indications provided in his Proemial Essay General (1661) and the many practical exemplification of this genre written by him. The influence of Boyle on the formation of this new text type has been widely acknowledged by contemporary and subsequent scientists and critics. It has also been suggested that Boyle’s detailed accounts of his experiments influenced not only scientific but also literaly writing. 1.1 Brevity This conciseness enables the researcher to report even limited experiences without compelling him to describe them at booklength. Several of the 17th century experimental essays consist of reports of single experiments. Sentences should be as concise as possible with no space given to unnecessary details. This brevity of form is not meant to lead to an over concise treatment of the subject. Experiments are usually reported very fully as this will enable the reader to carry out an accurate appreciation of the contents of the essay. Indeed, a feature of experimental essays that strikes the reader is the richness of detail to be found in them. This provision of maximal information confirms the main pragmatic goal of the experimental essay, which is meant to give as many details as possible in the clearest way. The abundance of detail and the precision of the narration of the experimental events may be attributed to the writer’s willingness to provide his readers with as many opportunities as possible to understand his report clearly, not only in order to enable them to come to appropriate conclusions, but also to repeat the same experiment in their own laboratories.

investigating specialized discourse, gotti degree of certainty, but offers a picture of himself as a reliable and faithful witness to the events that he is reporting. In order to make his narration more reliable, he carefully inserts the testimony of his collaborators. Although the narration mainly reports the events is an objective way, the essay also includes mention of the experimenter’s reactions. It was easier to secure acceptance of experimental results bu the scientific community if a higher degree of officialness was conferred on the experiment itself. This is the reason why the researcher often invited persons of a certain standing to be present while he was carrying out his activities. The reader is nevertheless able to scrutinize the contents of the report, and he can make a correct evaluation of them. Another important principle followed in the writing of experimental essays was to reproduce in that activity the same distinction correctly adopted by the scientist between the setting out of the facts observed and his considerations of them. Boyle suggests to show the methodological procedure adopted while underlining the rhetorical and pragmatic difference between those two parts. This impersonal way of analyzing other scientists conclusions and attacking wrong or inconsistent ideas allows the argumentative paper to be accepted more readily and highlights its persuasive strength, thus increasing its perlocutionary effect, which consists in convincing the reader of the validity of the writer’s thesis.

2. The evolution of the experimental essay The experimental essay was widely accepted by the scientific community of the 17th century. The first scientific journal to appear in England was the Philosophical Transactions (1665). The Early Modern English model of experimental essays greatly influenced the subsequent realizations of this text tape. The basic narrative structure of early scientific experimental reports was retained into the 19th century. To appreciate the importance of this genre, we should consider the fact that, while some forms of specialized writings almost disappeared, the experimental essay survived and became an essential part of specialized litterature. The rapid diffusion of scientific journals has made it an established genre commnly used by men of science. In the course of time the experimental essay has certainly evolved and has found a more cohesive structure, commonly consisting of the following steps: stating of purpose, description of the apparatus, account of the phenomena to be investigated, narration of the experiments, record of the result, expounding of any theorical implications. Most of these steps were constat parts of Early Modern English experimental essays. Some of the features of these early essays have chaged down the centuries. For instance, there is more frequent use of the passive form and there has been abandonment of the report of unsuccessful experiments, while greater emphasis is commonly laid on the theoretical conclusions.

investigating specialized discourse, gotti

VII. Specialized Discourse in The Philosophical Transactions

These innovations determined the need to socialize the discoveries made and the new ideas developed, also thanks to a collaborative spirit which ispired 17th and 18th century scientists. The development of the sciences was now seen as a result of public discussion and knowledge sharing. The aim of this chapter is to illustrate the different methots that the specialized discourse community of the times used to spread the news about the many activities then traking place and the discoveries. The chapter focuses on the various forms comployed by te contributors to the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. I twill be shown that the communicative role of such authors was not limited merely to the fulfilment of goals linked to socialization and solidarity, but also included the reform of existing means of discourse and the development of new ones. The propagation of discourse conveying new information about specialized facts or events to a social group sharing intellectual and professional interests implied the adoption of various textual forms, each with its own specific pragmatic aim so as to carry out different communicative functions and meet the expectations of a large number of non-homogenous addressees.

1. Early forms of specialized news dissemination 1.1 Communal correspondence We will be on the use of the Philosophical Transactions for the spread of specialized news, a relevant role in the performance of this important function was played by communal correspondence. In this period of the exchange of letters was not always intended for merely personal purposes, but often had a wider scope and a more official function. Scholars could find out about work in progress, new publications and how controversially they were received. Letters often conveyed information about the research work carried out not only by individuals but also by gourps, and were frequently addressed not merely to single experimenters but also to teams of researchers working elsewhere. The development of communal correspondence – favoured by the introduction of postal services, which, particulary in te seventeenth century, became quite regular and reliable – greatly stimulated the growth of a real community of adepts, as it provided an excellent means for the exchange of views and the official recognition of one’s own findings. In 1662 the Royal Society was founded, after a period in which its members had met in an informal manner. The efficacy of this corresponding activity was greatly enhanced by the Royal Charter. This privilege to correspond freely with citizens of other countries was particulary helpful in a period of great domestic turbulence and international conflicts. 1.2 The minutes of the Royal Society Another source of specialized news was the minutes of the meetings of the Royal Society. They were based on the notes taken at the meetings themselves, reporting the experimental