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1. Defining the notion of “Specialized Discourse”
In the 1920-1930, scholars belonging to to the Prague school turned their attention to the so-called “functional style” which characteristics scientific and technical discourse. At first, their approach was conservative, since it tended to classify such discourse at a lower level, totally separate from the language of everyday use. Research into the concept of “register” published after the Second World War attempted to identify the morphosyntactic, lexical and stylistic features that characterize specialized discourse. The transition from an uncontextualized view of language, typical of Chomskyan tradition, to its perception as a highly flexible means of communication employed in different situations place the study of specialized discourse within the wider spectrum of situation-contextual varieties. Register analysis turned its attention to the description of any feature that diverges from the default level of common language. The multi-dimensional nature of specialized discourse There is a clear distinction between different specialized languages. Disciplinary variation produces not only special lexical connotations but often also influences other options (morphosyntactic, textual and pragmatic). There are in fact three different situations in which a specialist may address a topic relating to his profession.
- The first case is when the expert addresses other specialists to debate issues within his disciplinary field. If the addressees share a considerable amount of knowledge, the author can make frequent use of specialized terminology whose semantic value is taken for granted.
- The second case is then specialistic address non-specialists to explain notions pertaining to their discipline. For educational purposes the meaning of specialized lexis is illustrated whenever it occurs for the first time.
- The this case is when a specialist provides information of a technical nature mainly through everyday lexis, while drawing on the non expert everyday experience when a specialized concept is introduced. The purpose here is to reach out to a wider audience, as generally observed in newspaper or magazine articles presenting scientific or technical information. These three situations lead to three different uses of language, or rather to three levels of specificity in language use, which Widdowson terms 1) scientific exposition 2) scientific instruction 3) scientific journalism; it its clear, however, that only the first two involve a truly specialist use of language. Some authors also allow for a fourth level, namely “formalization” or “condensation into formulae”, which relies on non-verbal rather than verbal language. Widdowson includes non-verbal elements (formulae, diagrams, tables, etc.) in the deep structure of specialized discourse, on the assumption that they are “universal” and independent of any single language. General features of specialized discourse Hoffmann provides a long list of the desirable qualities of specialized discourse. In a concise form, he reviews even main points:
- exactitude, simplicity and clarity;
- objectivity;
- abstractness;
- generalization:
- density of information;
- brevity or laconism;
- emotional neutrality;
- unambiguousness;
- impersonality;
- logical consistency;
- use of defined technical terms, symbols and figures. (—> inconstancies) Not all the criteria mentioned by Hoffmann are applicable to all specialized languages, and likewise the criteria chosen for a given specialized language are not always applicable to its various genres. There are also
inconstancies in Hoffmann’s criteria: the need for clarity may conflict with simplicity, the need for unambiguous expression may at times make it impossible to ensure conciseness or abstractness. The issues is taken up by Sager et al. who hypothesize three main criteria governing the choices made in specialized discourse: economy, precision and appropriateness. These are considered interdependent, in that maximum communicative effectiveness is achieved when the requirements of all three are satisfied. If conflict arises between the first two (economy and precision), the criterion of appropriateness becomes decisive: It decides the amount and type of cognitive effort involved in a speech act and therefore influences the presuppositions that can be made about prior knowledge. It regulates the explicitness of the psychological intention and therefore influences the assumptions that can be made about the correct interpretation of the intention of text forms. Sager et al’ s criteria constitute a landmark in interpretation because they approach language as the outcome of decisions and choices within a global semiotic dimension. They also emphasize the interrelationship between semantic and pragmatic requirements in the general language system to which specialized communication belongs. However, as this scheme borrow is principles from general linguistic theory, it is somewhat constrained and limited as a result.
this class is the meaning of two lexemes into a single term ( telematica, produced by the merging of telecomunicazione and informatica ). In other cases, greater conciseness is achieved through reduction of the term itself, either internally ( contraception of contraconception ) or terminally ( haemostat for haemostatic forceps). Another type of conciseness device observed in specialized languages is juxtaposition, which omits prepositions and pre modifiers in nominal groups containing two nouns; an Italian example is estrattoconto , with omission of the preposition + article del. Sometimes conciseness in specialized discourse relies on acronyms and abbreviations. Conservatism One of the main principles asserted by 17th and 18th century scientists was the need to redefine specialized concepts and replace existing terms with new ones, usually drawn from classical languages for greater monoreferentiality. The same innovative thrust is not found, however, in all fields of knowledge. For some such as the law, the trend is, instead, intensely conservative. Fear that new terms may lead to ambiguity favors the permanence of traditional linguistic traits, which are preserved even when they disappear from general language. Old formulae are preferred to newly-coined words because of their century-old history and highly codified, universally accepted interpretations. Custom of opening the preface to many English legal texts with the conjunction whereas. This conventional signal parallels the use of cum, quum, quandoquidem and quoniam in Latin legal texts. An amount of conservatism is also found in business language. Legal discourse has often been criticized even by legal experts. Many magistrates and legal experts now advocate an end to the use of archaic formulae and obsolete lexis. The need for reform in legal language is especially felt as regards interpretative difficulties of statues and circulars, which target not only specialists but also the general public. In the 1970s, this need gave rise in the US to the Plain English Movement, whose efforts to obtain a reform of legal language eventually convinced President Jimmy Carter to issue guidelines for the use of “clear and simple English” in all government regulations. This change in language use was not limited to government documents but soon spread to other public and private organizations, such as banks and insurance companies. In order to implement this Plain Language policy, several official guidelines have been drawn up to make public documents easy to read and interpret. This reforming movement has been so strong in US that it has inspired similar movements in other countries for clearer language in the drafting of government circulars and statues. It is in the field of business and governmental documents that the sampling and reorganizing action of the Plain Language Movement has been more successful. Instead, despite continued efforts by reformers, changes to legal language have been few and far between. Ambiguity in specialize discourse As regards the criterion of monoreferentiality, many texts show frequent violations to that principle, and the presence of many cases of ambiguity and polysemy. At times, the ambiguity is not planned, but in other cases it is the result of the author’s decision. What makes a formalized language inappropriate for the discussion of theoretical matters. Is that the univocal reference of each term in the vocabulary to a specified concept cannot take into account the need to give words different meanings in different contexts, and at different points in the procedure. Such a language can be useful only in those disciplines in which theoretical discussion does not call for multiple definitions of the concepts that employ. According to Keynes, translating through into the precise and unequivocal terms of a symbolic-mathematical language is an obstacle for the further development of that thought itself, as the continuous conceptual changes require a more flexible expressive system allowing for a constant redefinition of the referents of the terms employed. This inadequacy induces Keynes to accuse symbolic-mathematical language of causing confusion and misunderstanding. In his choice of everyday language, Keynes adopts the tripartite division proposed by Malthus, who identifies the definitional patterns employed in three main research fields: the mathematical sciences, the natural sciences and the moral sciences. Each type of science is characterized by a particular kind of language and therefore adopts its own definitional pattern. In the moral sciences, the use a person makes of a certain term determines the meaning that he attributes to it. The author may base his definition on the existing meaning(s) of a specific term, but he may also provide a very idiosyncratic definition corresponding to his own view of the world,
If a clear interpretation of a text is to be guaranteed, the author should use his terms in a consistent way. The specialist is not denied the right to redefine the value of some concepts or the meaning of some terms. However, in order not to give rise to misunderstanding or incomprehension, this semantic redefinition should be clearly stated, and terms should be used consistently with new meaning(s) throughout the text. Imprecision in specialized discourse Despite the recurring claim that precision is prominent feature of specialized discourse and one of its distinctive qualities, there are several exceptions to this rule in certain disciplinary fields. One of the least consistently precise areas is legal language, where terms are to a certain extent referentially fuzzy: in particular, the use of adjectives sometimes allows subjective, if not arbitrary, interpretation. Redundancy in specialized discourse Some specialized languages contain instances of redundancy, generally due to the pleonastic use of lexical items. This involves a violation of the principle of conciseness, when the number of lexemes employed is far higher than necessary. Legal language, in particular, displays the highest occurrence of violations to the principle of conciseness. Some cases may be explained in diachronic terms, as in the past terms did not always possess their present-day meaning: words that now appear synonymous could be semantically distinct in earlier centuries. Their combined use could help ensure semantic coverage of the whole target meaning. A degree of redundancy may be observers in the expression to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. Compliance to tradition is stronger in legal discourse than the search for concision. Semantic instability This feature does not apply indistinctly. In fact, terms undergo many semantic transformations, which in turn are linked to ongoing disciplinary evolution. Therefore the semantic variation of words due to cultural innovation and evolving social usage is not only typical of general language but also of specialized discourse. The presence of new meanings which eventually replace existing ones may lead to ambiguity, because the two may overlap in actual use. The ambiguity may become greater when semantic transparency is applied to the original term, since the tight link between a term and the concept originally assigned to its is weakened when the concept’s constituent features change in response to evolving disciplinary knowledge. The relationship with general language Semantic evolution very often originates from specialization of word meanings in the general language. The specialization of words borrowed from everyday language was particularly intense in the 17th and 18th centuries, when rapid technological and scientific development made it necessary to establish a specific lexis for separate disciplines and phenomena. In his study of English lexical development, Hughes identifies five generations of borrowings from classical languages:
- the first phase, dating from Roman occupation of England, chiefly concerned Latin and its influence;
- the second phrase occurred in the 6th-7th centuries and involved above all religious terminology;
- the third phase of classical borrowings with literary connotations took place during the Renaissance;
- in the 17th-18th centuries classical borrowings extended to specialized discourse, as terms appendix, premium;
- according, to Hughes, the classic al borrowings of the last two centuries belong to a fifth phase, as they preserve their original inflection and spelling to the point of appearing perfectly “foreign” to native English speakers. Metaphor in specialized discourse Another common device used in specialized discourse to create terms drawn from general language is metaphorisation, especially for the purpose of catachresis. This process has a number of advantages, the first of these is terminological transparency , achieved when a metaphor is used instead of a neologism so that its lexeme exploits the semantic association. Transparency is thus produced by referring new concepts to pre- existing items within the interlocutor’s semantic repertoire. Another advantage is the conciseness allowed by metaphorisation, whereby the choice of a given lexeme points immediately to a body of existing information known to the interlocutor, thus favoring rapid information transfer without lengthy conceptual explanations or complex terminological definitions. The third advantage is the tangible quality of images from the
3. Syntactic features of Specialized Discourse
Scholars investigating specialized languages have often argued that these are equipped with unique syntactic patterns which do not occur in general language. The specificity or morphosyntactic phenomena found in specialized languages is not a qualitative but a quantitative one. Certain features may also occur in general language but their higher frequency in specialized discourse makes them typical only of the latter. Omission of phrasal elements A prominent distinctive feature of specialized discourse is its extremely compact syntactic structure; this confirms the principle of conciseness. The value of any omitted elements may be inferred from the context or reconstructed by reference to knowledge shared by the language community. Omission is especially frequent in specialized texts, although some of the phenomena identified in the literature are related to the channel employed rather than the specificity of a given language. Omission of articles and auxiliaries in faxes and emails for business communication. The channel of communication requires a reduction ti the minimum in the number of words employed. The omission of articles and prepositions is a standard feature of instructions also in Italian manuals ( premere pulsante); the omission can also be found in legal texts. Expressive conciseness Substitution of relative clauses with adjectives usually obtained by means of affixation. The prefixes and suffixes generally adopted have precise semantic values, which enable the decoder to interpret their communicative function appropriately:
- workable metal ( = metal which can be worked)
- reactive force ( = force which reacts)
- absorbent material ( = material which absorbs)
Another device commonly adopted to simplify a relative clause containing a passive form consists in omitting its subject and auxiliary: e.g. pieces of iron left in the rain become rusty ( = pieces of iron which are left in the rain become rusty) These processes obey the criteria of conciseness and transparency. Indeed, the resulting expressions are shorter than the original ones containing relative clauses; moreover, they are clear, as they omitted elements can easily be deduced by the decoder. Pre-modification The phenomenon of relative clause reduction shows a frequent switch from postmodification to pre- modification. This transition is particularly straightforward in English because its syntactic rules allow several adjectival uses of phrasal elements. Shortens sentences, nominal adjectivation, are types of specification which can cover such features as the material of which an item is made ( paper tape), its use ( access arm), its function ( control byte) and others. Very often, compounds consisting of two short nouns soon merge into a single term after a certain period of use; at first the two nouns are hyphenated and subsequently they become one word ( sumcheck). Specialists show a preference for nominal adjectivation, which not only makes exposition denser but also attaches great semantic weight to the compound. The use of pre-modification offers advantages in terms of greater textual conciseness, offset, however, by a loss of conceptual clarity. Why is pre modification so common in such texts, despite its potential for ambiguity? First of all, one must say that ambiguity is often appeaser rather than real, because specialist knowledge helps the addressee to rule out inappropriate meanings in the decoding process. What is more, the transition from postmodification to pre modification allows the construction of more complex sentence. The combination of two or more terms produces not only a mere union of existing concepts but the pre modification process often gives rise to a new concept than alters their nature, adding new meaning and uses. Nominalization Another very common syntactic phenomenon of specialized discourse (not only in English but also in Italian and other other langue) is nominalization. This involves the use of a noun instead of a verb to convey concepts relating to actions or processes. The preference for nominalized forms leads to higher nominal density in specialized texts. Naturally nominalization is not unique to specialized discourse, as it also occurs
in general language. What make sit distintive is its frequent use by specialists and the high level of pre/ postmodification involved. Increasing reliance on nominalization cannot be explained only as a search for greater conciseness, though it is an important reason for transformations of this type. Nominalization also allows an easier flow of information from new to given, thus facilitating text development. By thematizing information through nominalization, text also acquires far greater cohesion. The pervasiveness of nominalization leads to a loss of verbal value. As a result the verb is weakened and often functions merely as copula, a link between increasingly complex noun phrases. Lexical density In specialized discourse one consequence of frequent nominalization and other pre modifying devices is increased lexical density, which is especially high in written texts, where discourse is planned more carefully without hesitation markers and with less redundancy. A more natural style, closer to spoken language, would make concepts more explicit and require more noun phrases for paraphrase, thus making the text less compact. Sentence complexity One effect of nominalization is the simplification of syntactic structures within the sentence. By switching from verbal to nominal forms, specialists tend to simplify the surface structure of sentences, which are minimized into simple patterns of the type NOUN PHRASE + VERB + NOUN PHRASE. Noun phrases are usually very complex, involving lengthy pre- and post- modification, while the verb phrase often consists of a copulative verb like be, become, form, mean, require, depend, consist of. Textual comprehension is easier, thanks to simplified surface structure but the lexical density of the sentence and the comple patterning of the noun phrases make interpretation more demanding. Sentence length Another factor which complicates the comprehension of specialized discourse is sentence length. Written specialized texts are encoded by far longer sentences than those found in general language. The phenomenon is even more striking when it concerns legal texts. The considerable sentence length of legal texts is due to the high number of items required to minimize ambiguity and misunderstanding. Each mention is supported by specifications that clarify its identity. A further feature of specialized discourse, namely that wherever special needs due to the specificity of the subject matter produce inconsistencies or conflict with the general rules of language, the specialist prefers to alter such linguistic rules for pragmatic purposes. In the case of legal language, the specialist’s need for clarify prevails over the syntactic conventions of general language. Use of verbs tenses In the greater majority of cases the present indicative tense is considered a feature of specialized languages, since the percentage of its occurrences is far higher than that found in common texts. The present indicative is not associated to the specificity of the topic but rather to the text’s special communicative purpose. Lackstom, Selinker and Trimble tried to account for the special use of past tense, present perfect and simple present forms in specialized texts. They found that the use of these verbs tenses varies according to the dredge of generality attitude by authors to the phenomena considered. Their analysis concludes that when generality is high, the choice falls on the simple present, while it falls on the present perfect when generality is low; if an event only occurred once, the employ past is preferred. Use of the passive Another widely-investigated feature of specialized discourse is its considerable use of passive verbs. The pervasiveness of the passive may be accounted for by its usefulness as a depersonalizing device in specialized discourse, which generally emphasizes the effect or outcome of an action rather than its cause or originator. Significantly, the agent is normally omitted in passive clauses, also because it is often the same for all the operations described. Sometimes the agent is omitted because there is no specific actor behind a given action: this accounts for stative verb forms expressing a condition rather than an event. The widespread use of the passive in specialized discourse is not common to all text types. The legal writings also have a lower proportion of passive forms. In legal contracts, for example, what matters most is not the set of rights and duties established between the parties but rather the specific people bund to such rights and
4. Textual features
There are a umber of features that distinguish specialized texts also from the textual standpoint. Many of these are peculiarities shared by all types of text and do not constitute a typological exception but rather a distinction in quantitative terms. In some cases, however, specialized texts seem to avoid the use of standard textual norms in favour of “deviant” options. Anaphoric reference Various studies have shown that anaphoric reference is one of the most common devices deployed to increase textual cohesion. In conjunction with other referential phenomena, alongside ellipsis, substitution and lexical cohesion, it forms the textual framework which - combined with suitable cohesive devices - accounts for a text’s constituent features. In legal writing it is normally avoided in favour of lexical repetition. This preference stems from the need for maximum clarity and avoidance of ambiguity, a typical trait of legal discourse. The need for maximum precision in legal language is confined by exophoric reference. Quite often specialized discourse not only deploys textual items to clarify or specify the relationship between different parts of a sentence but also uses cohesive devices to illustrate textual organization or authorial intention more clearly. Anaphora doesn’t not simply refer back to the semantic value of the previous sentence but also to its performative venue and specifies its illocutionary orientation. The fact that an author prefers to suggest pragmatic value indirectly through a non phrase rather than a verb phrase confirms the familiar tendency to nominalization and no explicit authorial presence in the text. Use of conjunctions These items not only add cohesion to texts but also have a pragmatic function, which clarifies the purpose of the sentence that follows. Thematic sequence Some studies of specialized discourse focus on the thematic structure, which is the sequence of thematic items (introducing topic or theme), and thematic items (containing what is said about the theme). This division overlaps with the distinction between “given” (an item of information known to the addressee and “new” (information that is not found in the preceding text or context). The “given” item is often, but not always, the same as the theme. In English the theme of unmarked sentences is generally their subject and occurs initially. A standard paragraph has each new theme referring back to the theme of the previous sentence. The sentence of thematic and thematic items in the text makes discourse both cohesive and coherent. Generally speaking, in his thematic structure the specialist adopts the same conventions commonly employed in general language. There are cases, however, when the specialist appears highly aware of the advantages of placing certain information items in thematic rather than rhematic position or vice versa, and though skillful use of such devices he is able to enhance the text’s pragmatic values. Text genres One of the phenomena the most distinguishes specialized discourse is compliance with the norms governing the construction of its different text genres. There is usually a close link between the type of specialized text and its structure, which in turn implies a number of correlations between the conceptual, rhetorical and linguistic features that characterize the text itself. Genre not only provides a conventional framework bur also affects all other textual features and constrains their conceptual and rhetorical development, which in turn determines the linguistic choices made as the text unfolds. Despite the rather high number of text genres in use, new text types are added every year to the list. One of the latest additions is the executive summary written for top managers. In the business world, the need to economize on time means that executives generally avoid reading long papers or reports; instead they ask a subordinate to inspect the document and draw up a summary of the main points required for decision- making. Another text form widely adopted in recent years is the abstract - the summary of an article published in a scholarly journal or of a paper presented at a conference. The abstract provides readers with a short summary that shows whiter a topic is relevant and worth the time required to read the whole article.
As for the structure of different textual genres, Van Dijk showed that they normally follow a clearly codified, widely accepted pattern. Further divisions occur when within each part, the role of each subsection is pragmatic as well as semantic. This means that the quality of textual organization facilitates comprehension of content but also of the pragmatic function of each section: some are informative, other evaluative or predictive. These tend to form standard sequences that typically reflect the specialist’s theoretical or practical activities. Textual organization The considerable codification of specialized genres increases semantic-conceptual coherence and transparency, as signaled by textual organizations. Studies on this aspect of text have not only highlighted its different parts but also the contribution of each part to the overall pattern. Trimble has developed an analytical model for specialized texts based on four levels:
- the first of these identifies the main objectives of discourse, equivalent to the text’s main pragmatic functions, for example reporting an experiment;
- the second tends to focus on what Trimble calls “the general rhetorical functions that develop the objectives of the first level of analysis”;
- the third shoes light on the specific rhetorical functions that develop the general rhetorical functions found at the second level; these are micro acts needed to realize each macro act, for example the description stage is divided into substages for physical and/or functional and/or procedural description;
- the last model accounts for the rhetorical devices that enable the development of semantic/pragmatic links within and among the micro acts assigned to the third level; physical description, for instance, relies mainly on spatial rhetorical resources, while functional description relies on causal resources and procedural description relies chiefly on a time oriented structure. Various aspects of Trimble’s model have been critics, especially regards the inaccurate linguistic terminology, however, this model has helped to identify the different structural levels of specialized discourse and its simplicity has permitted several applications also for pedagogic purposes. A considerable number of studies in the organization of specialized texts concentrate on the relationship among micro acts and their dependence on certain macro acts. The sequence of macro and micro acts generally follows clearly codified norms which are widely accepted within the discipline, but it may also be governed by inherent semantic-pragmatic requirements. The link among speech acts is such that the first item immediately suggest the second. Such semantic-pragmatic structures are not a feature of specialized discourse alone but occur universally. The different micro acts and macro acts in specialized texts generally coincide with the pragmatic dimension of general language. In some cases, however, a given semantic-pragmatic realization may identify a certain text type. Speech acts One of the problems confronted by the analyst is how to profile certain speech acts within each part of a texts, whether specialized or not. Language often serves different purposes, as the author employs the text to achieve various results simultaneously. The range of speech acts is similar in specialized and non-specialized texts. However, there is one class (performatives) that occurs far more frequently in legals texts. Here the language of text is crucial, as the use of insertions of a given expression may alter the act’s value. Accordingly, the value of a legal act often depends on the use of a specific formula. Argumentative pattern The highly structured construction of specialized discourse is reflected also in its argumentative pattern. As the main purpose is to convince readers that the author’s perspective is the right one, argumentation (but also clarity and logical coherence in the presentation of evidence) proceeds in a straight line to achieve the perlocutionary effect inherent in this type of text. For this reason, text is organized according to a “compositional plan” carefully designed to serve a given thesis. Though this plan is not identical in all argumentative specialized texts, there is an overall pattern underlying most texts. Given the highly persuasive value of language, authors use their linguistic skills with great care and strategic competence to creare consensus around their claims, taking up positions and expressing judgements though a range of rhetorical
5. The development of Specialized Discourse in the 17th century
The increasing need to use the English language for the expression of specialized texts caused a heated debate in 17th century England, as the adoption of other languages (Latin, in particular) was felt to be no longer suitable for this purpose. The great epistemological and methodological developments taking place in that period determined the need for corresponding changes both in the ways of communicating the new discoveries attained by means of innovative procedures and apparatus, and in the expressive tool tu be used to describe and argue about the new phenomena observed and analyzed. The criticism of the methods traditionally adopted in the study of the sciences and the development of a new specific system implied a change, but also in the way in which phenomena ought to be described and opinions expressed. Some critics maintained than an accurate interpretation and description of the complex phenomena of our universe required the adoption of a new language, based on innovative principles and using tools specifically devised for the purpose. Even those scientists who invented to use verbal language in the expression of scientific phenomena often pointed out its deficiencies and inaccuracies. Another criticism often made by scientists was the polysemy characterizing most words in any language, which often made texts ambiguous. The remedy that consisted in the coining of new terms providing a stricter delimitation of meaning. Specific accusations were made against the English language, the first being its inadequacy for scientific purposes due to its imperfection. Such inadequacy was mainly due to the limited amount of vocabulary present in the language. The field in which the English language proved to be particularly inadequate was that of the technical terms which made up the basic lexis of a subject. The lack of specialized terms often made the translation of works into English an arduous task, or made it difficult for English scientists to write essays in their native tongue. Developments in specialized lexis The realization that the English language was inadequate for then needs of expression of men of science led to its gradual amelioration, both from a quantitative and a qualitative point of view. British scientists made great efforts to increase the number of specialized terms and to improve the exactness of their meanings. Two main principles were followed in coining new terms: that of using the resources of the native tongue, either to give a specialized meaning to an existing word or to form a new one, or borrowing a similar term from a foreign language. In defining new concept, the specialist sometimes employed a word already existing in the language, adding a specialized meaning to its usual one(s); this is the case, for example, of Newton’s use of the word gravity, which - as a consequence of his important innovations in the field of physics - took on a new meaning; this new use of the word gave rise to the creation of others strictly connected to it such as gravitate and gravitation. However, the most frequently adopted strategy was the borrowing of terms from other languages, particularly from Latin. The choice of a loan (rather than the specialization of an existing word or the coinage of a new term) was often suggested by the fact that the concept to be referred to was already expressed in a foreign language. The availability of a term was particularly evident in the case of translation of texts. In that case, when the translator came across a word with no equivalent in the tongue into which he was translating, he was obliged to use the original word. In adopting the loan, the translator usually adapted the word that he was borrowing to the morphological features of the receiving language. Thus, for example, Latin words ending in - atio were provided with the suffix - ation. Moreover, once a loan had been introduced, it was frequently used as a root from which further words could be formed by means of affixation. This process of borrowing did not only involve the adoption of single words, but also of prefixes and suffixes, which were used more and more often to create new terms. The opaqueness of language Because of these advantages, the borrowing of Latinate forms was massive, although sometimes it was felt to be excessive and unjustified. Specialists were therefore often criticize and became targets for satire. People with a limited cultural background often misquote specialized terms because they find them too difficult to pronounce, understand and remember. However, borrowers defend their practice by pointing out that the strangeness of loans only lasts for a short period, after which people become familiar with such terms. The writer is aware of the difficulties of interpretation that readers might meet when they encounter the new terms. Therefore he often tries to help in the form of a paraphrase or synonym when they first appear in the
text. On other occasions that opaqueness of Latinate forms is reduced by means of a glossary provided by the publisher at the ned of the book with an explanation of the new terms. The transparency of language Apart from the process of word formation, the complex operation of creating new terminology adopter other criteria, mainly based on the pragmatic principle of maximum transparency (which is extremely important in specialized discourse). In the application of this principle, the specialist created terms in such a way that their form clearly reflected the concept to which it referred. These transparent terms were usually obtained by means of the juxtaposition of words already existing in the English language. This process of compounding was particularly favored by the brevity of English words; in fact, most were monosyllables and could therefore be easily linked to form compounds. The facilitating effect that the presence of monosyllables had on the possibilities of forming compounds was perceived as a great advantage offered by the English language. One of the advantages that monosyllables were believed to give is conciseness (which is another of the qualities scientists consider most important in the structure of specialized discourse). The conciseness of language Sentences should be as concise as possible, with no space given to unnecessary details. This preference for a clear, simple style was generally accepted by 17th century scientists. The principle of monoreferentiality was seen as fundamental in specialized literature, as a strict relationship between word and referent would leave no possibility for connotation or other indirect meaning. That is why in several specific treatises of this period we find a strong condemnation of metaphors, which were usually seen as deceitful devices. The avoidance of the use of metaphors led the specialist to condemn all forms of eloquence, commonly identified with figurative speech and stylistic embellishment. The strict reduction of the function of words to its mere denotational value led scientists to envisage a radical reform in the use of language, which for some implied a revision of the English tongue and for others the adoption of a completely new tool of expression. The proposal made in 1664 to create a British Academy “to improve the English tongue, and particularly, for philosophical purposes” belongs to the former case. The latter proposal, instead, implied the use of languages other than English: either natural or artificial. Bacon, for example, suggested a language similar to Chinese in which “there are in use certain real characters, not nominal; characters, I mean, which represent neither letters nor words, but things and notions”. This use of “real characters” would not only have the advantage of being more precise, but could also be employed at an international level. In line with Bacon’s proposal is John Wilkins’ elaboration of a universal language. The evolution of the syntax of specialized texts The 17th century also showed interesting developments int he syntactic feature of specialized texts. Unlikes the lexical field, changes took place in a non-explicit way, as specialists were usually unaware of the syntactic modifications that they were introducing into the language by means of their writings. The new perspective that characterized their research method conflicted with the constraints of the language and forced them to adapt its rules to their expressive needs. Each sentence was structurally simple, with few or no subordinate clauses, complying with the modern preference for co-ordination rather than subordination in sentence structure. Distinctive preference for the use nouns deriving from verbs. The increase in the use of nominalization was part of a gradual tendency towards a loss of importance of the verb, compensated by a growth of importance of the noun. This change was mainly for textual reasons, as the process of nominalization enabled the scientist to include more information in the same sentence and guarantee a better flow of discourse. Moreover, this process promoted a better cohesion of the text by means of the recovery of the information given in the previous statement as the theme of the following sentence. There is a tendency towards depersonalization. Conclusions The analysis of 17th century specialized texts has thus provided abundant evidence for the great increase in the lexis of the language to be used in specialized fields which made the English tongue more suitable for the expression of any kind of subject. This increase was obtained trough the adoption of the various possibilities that the language offered for the formation of new words: addition of meanings to terms already in use, derivation from existing lexical items by means of affixation and compounding, as well as borrowing from
6. The origins of the experimental essay
The experimental essay originated in the Early Modern English period as a result of a complex process of scientific evolution which determined the need for a new expository genere to suit the new epistemic approach of 17th century “natural philosophers”. Their need could no longer be satisfied by the traditional essay, as this mainly allowed principles and employed techniques of prevalently literary type. The innovative characteristics of this new text type derived from the great importance attributed to the experimental process in the research programmes of Early Modern English men of science, who - elaborating on Francis Bacon’s intuitions - shared the principle that the progress of knowledge could not be based on the servile observance of traditional theory, but should rely on the observation of natural phenomena and accurate experimental activity. The years immediately following Bacon’s teachings witnessed the presence of both philosophical approaches: the deductive and the inductive. Some natural philosophers continued to write their works relying mainly on past authority, usually starting out from the citation of an ancient or medieval philosopher and demonstrating the correctness or incorrectness of his views by means of deductive theoretical argumentations. Others, instead, based the evidence of their theoretical claim on direct experience and personal observation. This was the attitude taken by the large group of scientists who in the 17th century promoted the formation of the Royal Society. These new researches emphasized the need for an experimental approach, so as to collect abundant data from which correct generalizations could be derived. Apart from this emphasis on experimental activity, another important aspect of the new scientific approach consisted in the need for both the procedures and the results of these experiments to be made known to the entire learned world. The publicity given to the work of the members of the Royal Society would further distinguish them from the group of alchemists, who considered secrecy one of the main characteristics of their research method. To carry out their comunicative task, scientists needed a new expository form. Already bacon by means of the aphorism, had tried out a writing device different from the traditional ones to convey personal observations relating to short and specific items; this form, however, while useful for brief comments and reflections, was not deemed appropriate for the description of experiments. The other main forms available to the scientists were the essay, the dialogue and rhetoric treatise. The first, however, had been used also for literary or philosophical purposes, and therefore retained some rhetorical feature unsuitable for scientific purposes. The latter two were more suitable for long issues and where the purpose was mainly argumentative, so would be used in such cases as when a new theory was to be set out or old ones debated. The writing of treatises or dialogues were instead deemed inappropriate for tentative suggestions or early formulation of hypothesis. There was a need for a shorter form, which would offer the scientist the opportunity to report briefly experiments carried out, procedures followed, results obtained and any personal comments. This genere would allow immediacy of communication, and would protect the writer from any accusation of incomplete theoretical exposition, as its purpose would be mainly descriptive rather than argumentative. The lack of such a form would have detrimental effects on the growth of the sciences, as it either compelled the experimenter to write unnecessary long and theoretically still immature books, or discouraged him from revealing his experiences and tentative opinions. The means of communication identified as appropriate for scientific purposes was the experimental essay, meant to enable the researcher to report his experiences with immediacy and precision. Such a genre, however, would differ from the traditional essay, following foreign models - such as Montaigne’s - structured on principles inspired either by literary or argumentative criteria. The main features of experimental essay The British scientists has been selected as a paradigmatic figure both because of the specific metatextual indications provided in his Proemial Essay; General (1661) and the many practical exemplifications of this genre written by him, such as his New Pneumatical Experiments about Respiration. The influence of Boyle on the formation of this new text type is really relevant.
- Brevity : one important characteristic of the experimental essay is its shorter length compared with that of a treatise or a dialogue. This conciseness enables the researcher to report even limited experience without
compelling him to describe them at booklenght. Indeed, several of the 17th century experimental essay consist of reports of single experiments, and resemble the rewording in continuous prose of the notes that the researcher has made in hid diaries. The principle conciseness and economy of discourse is often pointed out by specialists. Sentences should be as concise as possible with no space given to unnecessary details. However, this brevity of form is not meant to lead an over-concise treatment of the subject. On the contrary, experiments are usually reported very fully, and even the slightest detail is described, as this will enable the reader to carry out an accurate appreciation of the contents of the essay. Indeed, a feature of experimental essays that strikes the reader in the richness of detail to be found in them. The details are very specific as regards not only the procedures followed, but also the equipment used and the time required for each experiment. The precision of the narration is also visible in the use of very specific terminology appropriate to specialized writings. The provision of maximal information confirms the main pragmatic goal of the experimental essay, which is meant to give as many details as possible in the clearest way. This, however, should not induce the writer to fall into redundancy or repetition. In particular, opinions expressed by others or information which can easily be found in other papers are generally omitted. The abundance of detail and the precision of the narration of the experimental events may be attributed to the writer’s willingness to provide his readers with as many opportunities as possible to understand his report clearly, not only in order ti enable them to come to appropriate conclusions, but also to repeat the same experiment in their own laborites, and thus prove his results to be more reliable. Moreover, the minuteness of detail and the accuracy of the narration is meant to make repeatability easier and thus encourage the growth of empirical practice in the community of scientists. The careful and objective narration of one’s experiments may provide the materials for proper security and reliable judgement, and thus permit the transformation of personal results into facts widely accepted by the scientific world. Having obtained in this way the consensus of a wider public, experimental data can become “matters of fact” and part of scientists shared culture. However, the criterion of conciseness is subordinate to the higher principle of clarity of exposition, which is considered the most important in items of perlocutionary value. 2) Lack of assertiveness: a second feature of this text type is that there is no need for the author to arrive at definite conclusions or to systematize the results obtained; the data are to be reported as they are observers, without the writer being required too accompany them with hypothesis or comments. This allows the researcher to report all the details of his experimental activity, even those that he might not be able to explain, thus reducing his theoretical responsibilities and the risk of being criticized. The same principle enables writers to report also experiments that have been unsuccessful, as the analysis of these experiences might help the reader not to make the same mistakes as those reported or enable him to draw interesting conclusions. A feature that clearly stands out in reading early modern english experimental essays is the frequent use of the narrating technique compared with the very limited space allotted over the author’s reflections. Also the introduction to the experimental essay is usually very short, and briefly outlines the purpose of a series of connected experiments. This confirms the non-argumentative but mainly informative purpose of the genre. 3) Perspicuity: as regards the way experimental essay should be written, the prevailing opinion is that authors should adopt a “philosophical” rather than “rhetorical” style. This choice of a more referential language is due to the very function of the paper, which is to provide information in as clear a way as possible. This is the reason why in several scientific texts of this period we find a strong condemnation of metaphors, which are usually seen as deceitful devices. The scientific community is convinced that the use of unnecessary rhetorical devices in socialized literature can hinder the comprehensibility of the text. Rhetorical devices are not to be banned from scientific texts completely, but they should be avoided when unnecessary, when they do not improve the illustrative value of the paper but, on the contrary, only make the text more confused and more difficult to understand. Boyle also condemns the habit that certain scientists have of using cryptic language so as not to make their discoveries comprehensible to their readers. He maintains, on the contrary, that all works should be written in clear language so that everybody can decode the contents and so improve his knowledge of the subject. This need for clarity also applies to the use of specialized terminology. One accusation frequently made against scientists by non-specialists is the obscurity of the terms used, many of them being either new or adapted from foreign languages. A very balanced position on the subject is adopted by the majority of the members of the Royal Society, who condemn the unjustified use of foreign loans or strange terms and therefore try to
7. Specialized discourse in the philosophical translations
The development of specialized discourse were consequential tot he science innovation of the 17th and 18th century. It’s relevant the use of philosophical translation for the spread of specialized news and a relevant role in its performance was played by communal correspondence. In this period the exchange of letter had a wider use and an official function correspondence was often distributed through clearing houses for scientific correspondence. The development of communal correspondence - favored by the introduction of postal service - stimulated the growth of a community of adepts that were a good means for t he exchange of views. Many letters read aloud at meeting at the Royal Society, before the philosophical transactions started publication. Another source of specialized news was the minute the meetings of the Royal Society where the community of adepts took notes and thus reported the experiential documentations. The minute of the meetings coincided with the content of philosophical transactions, as the journal became the official organ of the society later. Early scientific publications The first scientific periodical was a French journal and in 1665 the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London was published. The Philosophical Transactions is the first journal entirely dedicated to science news with the report of experiments. Some contributions are written in Latin because that language played an important role in the scientific community of that period. In addition, most of its part were written in English. The Philosophical Transactions became very popular around various countries. Editorial role The editor’s presence is significant. Indeed most of the news were reported by Oldenburg himself. In the first article he reported news about experiments he had made through his letter network. Little by little articles for publication in the Philosophical Transactions went to the editor who was seem as an intermediary. The editor’s function was to provide an introduction to the text in which he often pointed out that the articled had just been received. The intro was very short, sometimes, it represents the title, where the news were taken from other articles. Text types The majority of texts published in the Philosophical Transactions will be grouped into four main categories according the main features:
- New items —> brief reports and short observations of natural events, this part it’s a real article. The main
topic covered by these texts were medicine, science and technology.
- Experimental accounts —> they don’t contain abstract but had very long titles, describing the contents of
the papers themselves, they are often precede any an introduction written by the editor to contesthualize the accounts and present the editor in a very positive way. Experimental accounts started from the observation of natural phenomena.
- Letters —> the aim of letters was to provoke readers intentions and explanations and they created a strong
reactions and criticism. Letters can be distinguished from new items and experimental accounts because they opened with salutation and were followed by a polite reference to the editor or to the Royal Society. Were used a civil style such as polite tone, first and second person pronouns.
- Book reviews —> at the end of the journal. Most reviews were articled by the editor himself, they took a
smaller part of the Philosophical Transactions.
8. The formation of the lexis of computer science
Although it is a fairly recent subject, information science has rapidly assumed a very important role in the modern world. Since it is a relatively new branch with specific concepts and tools, information science has developed its own terminology, part of which derives from other disciplines or from general English, and part of which has been devised for this discipline only. Main features of the lexis of compiler science Specialization and borrowing: the first category of words found in the language of computer science includes all words borrowed from the general language and to which a new contextual meaning is given, as the case of hardware, chat group, program and disk. There is a preference for American spelling due to the supremacy of the American computer industry has achieved not only in the development of the technological know-how of such a field, but also in the creation of its language, widely used in manuals and literature illustrating hardware and software made in the USA and exported all over the world. Another method of borrowing general English words to make up the terminology of computer science is the use of metaphors. The recurrence to metaphorical processes is quite frequent, especially in the early stages of development of a new discipline when the concepts are still rather vague and can therefore be named only tentatively. Common examples of metaphorical transfer of everyday words into computer science texts are memory, address, store, menu, mouse and spamming. When given a new meaning, some of these words are also assigned a new form, and are therefore considered as new terms which no longer have the same properties as the original words. This is the case, for example, of mouse, whose plural form is irregular in general English while in the language of computer science it is regular. In other cases, words borrowed from general English are assigned to a different grammatical category, as format used as a verb besides its nominal value. Apart from general English, a few new terms have also been borrowed from other fields, in particular mathematics, engineering, physics and electronics, that is, from the branches of knowledge most closely linked to information terminology. When borrowed from other specialized languages, some terms are reduced in length to comply with the norm of economy common to all specialized discourse, as digitize from digitalize. Neology: when new words are required and cannot be borrowed from general English, or other specialized languages or from foreign languages, they are expressly created for the purpose. There some cases in which the origin of a certain form is difficult to trace, and the coinage of the term does not seem to follow a logical criterion. In general, however, the coinage of a new term makes use of the traditional analytic and syntactic processes of English word-formation. One of the processes most frequently employed is that of derivation. By means of the most common prefixes and suffixes present in general English, as megabit, processor and mini-computer. Another process very frequently used in word-formation is analogy, where a word is formed by being modeled on an already existing lexeme, as software created on the analogy of hardware. The use of similes is another technique of word-formation which commonly appears in the language of computer science. This process is generally employed to coin new expressions which refer to the aspect or the category of an item, as bridge connector. In a few cases these similes are made more explicit by the addition of the words shaped and type , as drum type printer. As concept become more complex, often rhetoric expressions referring to them also become longer. To express the various syntagmatic connotations, the specialized language recurs to more complex forms of composition. One of the way to achieve economy is by the process of compounding. In fact, a compound is often the result of a process of compression of various items included in the same syntagm by the omission of linking function words and consequent re-ordering of lexemes, as programmer of computers becomes computer programmer. In noun compounds and in noun phrases the last term refers to the item being referred to, while the preceding one(s) specifies its property. such specification may either concern the material of which a certain item is made as silicon chip or load program. Often, after a certain period of usage, some of these compounds are joined either by a hyper or fused into a single word: online. Compounds often in crude more than two words, and groups of three, four and even five words are frequently found. The long compound groups are generally considered complicated; therefore, they are often simplified by means of a process of ellipsis, as floppy disk drive becomes floppy drive. In spite of the abolition of one of the terms of the multiple compound no risks of misunderstanding are likely to arise, as the word omitted can be easily reconstructed from the context. Another way of making
