Scarica Riassunto ''The English Encyclopedia of the English Language'' David Crystal e più Sintesi del corso in PDF di Linguistica Inglese solo su Docsity!
8. THE NATURE OF THE LEXICON
The term lexicon is known in English from the early 17th century and the term itself comes from Greek lexis ‘’ word, speech’’. In linguistics, the term lexicon refers to the total stock of meaningful units in a language (words, prefixes and suffixes).
LEXEME
A lexeme , also known as a lexical unit, lexical item, lexical word is a unit of lexical meaning which exists regardless of any inflectional endings it may have or the number of words it may contain. The lexeme is the fundamental unit of the lexicon (word stock) of a language. It is a linguistic item defined by the lexical entry for this item:
- Its sounds form and its spelling ( languages w// a written standard )
- Its grammatical category ( verb, noun, adjective etc)
- Its inherent grammatical properties ( gender )
- The set of grammatical forms it may take ( irregular forms )
- Its lexical meaning
A lexeme is often an individual word or a dictionary word , and a dictionary word may have a number of inflectional forms or grammatical variants ( talk, talked, talking ). A lexeme can also be a multiword or composite lexeme , made up of more than one orthographic word such as a phrasal verb (speak up, pull through), an open compound (fire engine), an idiom (give up the ghost). The way in which a lexeme can be used in a sentence is determined by its word class or grammatical category.
ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviations are shortened versions of words and phrases. Abbreviations are one of the most noticeable features of present-day English linguistic life and can be considered a kind of society slogan. The fashionable use of abbreviations comes and goes into waves and in the present century it has been eclipsed by the emergence of abbreviations in technology, science and other special fields. The reasons for using abbreviated forms are:
- The desire for linguistic economy
- Succinctness and precision
- Help to convey a sense of social identity ( to be in the know)
- Unabbreviated form may be so specialized that is unknown to most people
Types of abbreviation
- Initialisms / alphabetisms : items which are spoken as individual letters, formed by using some of the letters in the word or phrase: BTW; USA ; TV; WWW; BBQ.
- Acronyms: initialisms which are pronounced as single words, formed by using the first letters in the words of a phrase or first part of a phrase: GIF; NATO; UNESCO.
- Clipping: a part of a word which serves fort the whole: MATHS; FRIES.
- Blends: a word which is made up of the shortened forms of two other words: BRUNCH; OXBRIDGE.
- Facetious forms: TGIF: thanks God it’s Friday ; CMG: Call me God
- Latin abbreviations: Dei gratia; et caetera
9. THE SOURCES OF THE LEXICON
NATIVE VOCABULARY
Many lexemes have always been there, in the sense that they arrived with the Germanic settler tribes ( Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Frisians ) when they entered Britain in AD 449 onwards and displaced the original Celtic – speaking inhabitants.
- many items that pertain to down-to-earth, everyday matters
- words that we described as ‘core’
- parts of the body ( arm, bone, heart, ear, chest, eye, foot ,etc)
- natural environment ( field, hill, land)
- domestic life ( door, floor, house)
- the calendar ( day, month, moon, sun )
- animals ( cow, dog, sheep)
- common adjectives ( black, dark, good, wide)
- common verbs ( become, do, fly, go, keep, etc)
FOREIGN BORROWINGS (loan words)
English is an insatiable borrower, in fact over 350 languages are record as sources of its present-day vocabulary.
Before the Anglo-Saxons arrived, there was a strong influence of Latin, especially after the arrival of Christianity ( priest, church, school, plant).
Celtic borrowings mainly in the Celtic based place names like:
- Conversion : lexemes can be made to change their word class without the addition of an affix , like nouns, adjectives and verbs: ▲ verb to noun: a swim, a drive-in, a cheat
▲ adjective to noun : a bitter, a natural ▲ noun to verb: to bottle, to referee, to oil
▲ adjective to verb: to dirty, to empty ▲ noun to adjective: it’s cotton, it’s reproduction
▲ grammatical word to noun: too many if and buts, there’s a must ▲ affix to noun : ologies and isms
▲ phrase to noun: a free for all, a down and out ▲ grammatical word to verb: to down tools
- Compounding or compounds : a compound is a lexeme that consists of more than one stem. Compounding, composition or nominal composition is the process of word formation that creates compound lexemes. Types of compounding: ▲ endocentric: A+B denotes a special kind of B: darkroom, smalltalk
▲ exocentric: A+B denotes a special kind of unexpressed semantic head: skinhead, paleface
▲ copulative: A+B denotes ‘’the sum’’ pf what A and B denote : bittersweet, sleepwalk
▲ appositional: A and B provide different descriptions for the same referent: actor- director, maidservant
- Derivation
- Neologism : the general term for a newly-created lexeme is a coinage, but a distinction can be drawn between nonce words (a lexeme created for temporary use, to solve an immediate problem of communication, i.e. fuddle ) and neologisms (a process of forming a new word by coining). Subcategories of neologisms: ▲ Eponym: a proper noun that becomes commonly used for an idea it is associated with, usually by changing its part of speech ( Xerox, Orwellian, Stentorian)
▲ Loanword: a word borrowed from another language ( cliché from French) ▲ Onomatopoeic word: a word which imitates natural sounds ( cuckoo like the bird name) ▲ Phono - semantic matching: matching a foreign word with a phonetically and semantically similar, pre-existing native word or root.
- Back-formation: we form words with back-formation when we remove part of a word, usually something which we think is a suffix (or occasionally a prefix).We do this commonly when we form verbs from nouns ( to liaise > back-formed from the
noun liaison ; to intuit > back-formed from the noun intuition ; to enthuse > back- formed from the noun enthusiasm).
11. THE STRUCTURE OF THE LEXICON
When we talk about the ‘structure’ of the lexicon, we are referring to the network of meaning relationships which bind lexemes together – the semantic structure (we are trying to expound all the relationships of meaning that relate lexemes to each other). No lexeme exists in splendid isolation because as soon as we think of one, a series of others come to mind ( uncle > mother, father, brother , etc.)
SEMANTIC FIELDS The semantic or lexical field is a named area of meaning in which lexemes interrelate and define each other in specific ways, but the task is not as straightforward as it might appear because:
▲ some lexemes seem to belong to fields which are very difficult to define or which are vague ( noise , difficult)
▲ some lexemes seem to belong to more than one field ( orange) ▲ some lexemes seem to fall midway between two fields ( tomato)
THE THESAURUS
Thesauri are based on the notion of grouping lexemes thematically. In a thesaurus we have a meaning in mind, and wish to check on the lexemes available to express it.
Roget’s Thesaurus is the pioneer and it divides the lexicon into six main areas: abstract relations, space, the material world, the intellect, volition and sentiment/moral powers.
THE LEXICAL STRUCTURE
Lexemes are related along two intersecting dimensions:
▲ on the horizontal dimension or SYNTAGMATIC (sequence), we sense the relationships between lexeme in a sequence. Horizontal expectancies are known as collocations or selectional restrictions.
▲ on the vertical dimension or PARADIGMATIC (substitution), we sense the way in which one lexeme can substitute for another, and relate to it in meaning. The predictable links between lexemes are called sense relations.
The lexical items involved in a collocation are always to some degree mutually predictable, occurring regardless of the interests or personality of the individual user. Such minimally varying sequences are fixed expressions or idioms: a free hand, at first hand, out of my hands, etc.
the experience of individuals and are to some degree unpredictable ( bus > has such connotations as ‘cheapness’ ‘convenience’ or ‘discomfort’, ‘inconvenience’ , etc.).
Loaded expression : when a lexeme is highly charged with connotations, like the language of politics and religion: capitalist, fascist, democracy, politician, etc.
Taboo : lexemes which people avoid using in polite society, either because they believe them harmful or feel them embarrassing or offensive ( death, supernatural, sexual act, substances exuded by the body , etc.). There are various ways of avoiding a taboo item:
- to replace it by a more technical term ( anus, genitalia)
- to part-spell the item ( f__k)
- to employ an euphemism, expression which refers to the taboo topic in an indirect way ( fall asleep > die ; after a long illness > cancer ; etc.).
Swearing : (rude or offensive language) refers to the strongly emotive use of a taboo word or phrase and its function is to express a wide range of emotions, from mild annoyance through strong frustration to seething anger, and not to make sense ( fucking hell).
Jargon : it’s a loaded word and is said to be a bad use of language, something to be avoided at all costs, but everyone uses jargon because it is an essential part of the network of occupations and pursuits which make up society, and it is also the chief linguistic element which shows professional awareness and social togetherness.
Doublespeak : it is a language that makes the bad seem good, the negative seem positive, the unpleasant appear attractive and it was designed to change reality and to mislead.
THE LIVING LEXICON
Spoken language is always on the move and the more alive a language is, the more we see it change, as adapts to new demands and circumstances. English is in the forefront of living languages.
Catch phrases : (jocular expressions) is a phrase which is so appealing that people take pleasure in using it ( what’s up doc? ; gissa job; evenin’ all, etc.).
Slogans : originally used to describe the battle-cry of a Scottish clan, today it is used to form a forceful, mind-grabbing utterance which will rally people to buy something or to behave in a certain way, frequently used in campaigns and commercial products. Slogans are very like proverbs and are frequently used in alliteration and rhyme ( safety first; make love, not war ; that’ll do nicely.).
Graffiti : originally referred to a drawing or inscription scratched on an ancient wall (Pompeii) ,but nowadays the name has come to be used for any spontaneous and unauthorized writing or drawing on walls, vehicles and other public spaces. It is typically obscene or political in character. ( bureaucracy rules OK).
Slang : both upper and lower-class , is one of the chief markers of in-group identity, it comes very close to jargon.
THE DYING AND DEAD LEXICON
Quotations : is a fragment of socially-embalmed language. It is a language which has been freely available for anyone to use and is very similar to catch phrases.
Catch phrases Quotations
- spoke origin
- very short
- subject to variation
- relatively trivial in subject matter
- popular for only a short period
- colloquial tone
- written origin
- indeterminate in length
- highly restricted in the contexts
- semantically more profound
- capable of standing the test of time
- literary tone
Proverbs : pieces of traditional wisdom, handed down by previous generations ( An apple a day keeps the doctor away; A friend in need is a friend indeed; Another day, another dollar; Nothing is certain except death and taxes.).
Archaisms : is a feature of an older state of the language which continues to be used while retaining the aura of its past. Grammar and the lexicon provide the chief examples and most of them can be found in religious and legal settings and others:
▲ lexical items: before ( behold) ; rather (fain) ▲ grammatical features: present tense, contracted forms, past tenses, nouns
Clichés : fragments of language apparently dying, yet unable to die. Their value is precisely the ability to express what the critics condemn ( every Tom, Dick and Harry; at this moment in time, etc.).
CAP 14 – 15 (see pp.198 – 213)
Sub- fields of Linguistics
Phonology : the study of speech production and perception (phonetics and phonemics)
Morphology : the study of the structure of the words of Language and how they combine: lexical or derivational morphology > studies the way in which new items of vocabulary can be built up out of combinations of elements; inflectional morphology > studies the way words vary in their form in order to express a grammatical contrast.
Morphology in language study is the study of the structure of words. It studies how people build up their words, and what jobs the different parts of a word perform.
Morpheme: is the smallest meaningful unit in a language. In linguistics, morphemes are the smallest building blocks in the grammar of language, they’re also called ‘basic bits and pieces’ which are used to build up words.
We can create new words through:
Syntax : from Greek ‘arrange together’, studies the internal of structure of sentences and its interrelationship among. It is the main subject studied by English grammar. It’s the way words go together to make sentences.
Sentences are:
▲ constructed according to a system of rules and summarized in a grammar > grammatical sentence ▲ are the largest constructions to which the rules of grammar apply
▲ are constructions which can be used on their own ▲ are units of meaning which seem to make sense by themselves
TYPE OF SENTENCE
Sentences can be grouped into two main types:
▲ regular or major sentences (sentences which can be broken down into a specific pattern of elements called clause ) > just one element = simple sentences ; more than one element = multiple sentences ▲ irregular or minor sentences (sentences which are not constructed in a regular way)
common in certain types of written language, such as notices, headlines, labels, advertisements, subheadings, web sites and other settings where a message is presented as a ‘block’. LEVELS OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Major sentences have the potential to contain a great deal of grammatical units, ordered and recognized through ‘levels’ of organization. Generally, there are four levels of organization:
▲ word
▲ phrase ▲ clause
▲ sentence SENTENCE FUNCTIONS
Traditional grammars recognized four types of sentence functions:
▲ Statement : is a sentence whose primary purpose is to convey information ( told you so ; hardly had we left when it started to rain.) ▲ Questions : are sentences which seek information:
- Yes-no questions: Are you ready?
- Wh-questions: Where are you going? ; What are you doing?
- Alternative questions (always contain the connecting word or) : Will you be travelling by car or by bus?
- Exclamatory questions (strongly positive in meaning): Wasn’t it marvelous!
- Rhetorical questions (as if they were emphatic statements): Who cares?; How should I know?
- Tag questions: It’s there, isn’t it? ; They’re not in, are they?
Commands or directives : sentences which instruct someone to do something ( Mind your head!; Sit down!; Have a nice day!)
Exclamations : sentences which show that a person has been impressed or roused by something ( What a mess! ; What a lovely day!)
Echo sentence : used only in dialogue and its purpose is to confirm, question or clarify what the previous speaker has just said ( He didn’t what? ; Down there?).
CLAUSE ELEMENTS All clauses are made up out of elements, each expressing a particular kind of meaning and the present grammatical analysis recognizes five types of clause elements:
▲ Subject (S): usually identifies the theme or topic of the clause ▲ Verb (V): expresses a wide range of meanings, such as actions, sensations, or states of being. ▲ Object (O): identify who or what has been directly affected by the action of the verb. ▲ Complement (C) : give further information about another clause element
▲ Adverbial (A): usually add extra information about the situation, such as the time of an action, its location, or its manner of being performed.
Clause types:
▲ S + V : I yawned.
▲ S + V + O : I opened the door.
▲ S + V + C : I am ready.
▲ S + V + A : I went to London.
▲ S + V + O + O : I gave him a pen.
▲ S + V + O + C : I got my shoes wet.
▲ S + V + O + A : I put the box on the floor.
PHRASES
A phrase is a syntactic construction which typically contains more than one word, but which lacks the subject-predicate structure usually found in a clause. Phrases are traditionally classified into types based on the most important word they contain. Six word classes are found as the identifying elements or heads of phrasal constructions:
▲ PERFECTIVE ASPECT: constructed using forms of the auxiliary verb have
- Present perfective: used for an action continuing up to the present ( I’ve lived in Paris for a year)
- Past perfective: expresses anterior time but in an earlier time frame ( I am sorry that I had missed the train; The house has been empty for years)
▲ PROGRESSIVE ASPECT: forms of be can be used along with the –ing form to express an event in progress at a given time ( they’d been jumping; I’m living in Italy).
MULTIPLE SENTENCES
Compound sentences : the clauses are linked by the coordinating conjunctions and , or , or but. Each clause can act as an independent or main clause (I saw his hat / but / I didn’t see his gloves).
Complex sentences : the clauses are linked by subordinating conjunctions because , when , since. The subordinate clause is made dependent upon the main clause ( I heard the noise / when Mike dropped the plates).
- Clause as subject: That he argued was a shame.
- Clause as object: I said that it was time.
- Clause as complement: The result was what I wanted.
MULTIPLE STRUCTURES
Multiple coordination: I like fish / and / I like eggs / and / I like ham.
Multiple subordination: He said that / we would eat / when the café opened. ; What I say / is / what I think. ; I went / when the rain stopped / and / after I found my shoes.
OTHER SYNTACTIC ISSUES
Pro – forms : a word which replaces or refers to a longer construction in a sentence. Used in co-reference are usually definite pronouns or indefinite pronouns. ( The children hurt the children = The children hurt themselves.).
Ellipsis : occurs when part of a sentence is left out because it would otherwise repeat what is said elsewhere. ( I’d like to eat that biscuit, but I won’t … ).
Disjuncts : convey the speaker’s comment about the style or form of what is being said ( frankly, honestly, confidentially) and others make an observation about the truth of a clause, or a value judgement about its content ( fortunately, foolishly, undoubtedly, hopefully).
Comment clauses : express tentativeness ( I think, I assume, rumour has it); certainty ( I know, there’s no doubt, it’s true); emotional attitude ( frankly speaking, I’m afraid, I hope); asking for attention (you know, as you may have heard).
Reporting clause : direct speech (oratio recta) gives the exact words used by the speaker or writer, usually enclosed by quotation marks ( Michael said, ‘I like the color’.); indirect speech (oratio obliqua) gives the words as subsequently reported by someone, usually takes the form of a subordinate clause introduced by that ( Michael said that he liked the color).
Given and new information : given information tells us what a sentence is about, it provides the sentence theme, expressed through fronting ( Across the road they run), inversion ( Down came the rain), cleft sentences ( It was Ted who broke the plate) , extraposition ( It doesn’t matter what you say) , existentials ( There are many people in danger) ; new information provides the point where we expect people to pay special attention, or focus (The plates are new, not the cups.).
17. THE SOUND SYSTEM
Phonetics deals with the production of speech sounds by humans, often without prior knowledge of the language being spoken. Is the study of the way humans make, transmit, and receive speech sounds. It is divided into three main branches:
- Articulatory phonetics: the study of the way the vocal organs are used to produce speech sounds
- Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds
- Auditory phonetics: the study of the way people perceive speech sounds Phonology is about patterns of sounds, especially different patterns of sounds in different languages, or within each language, different patterns of sounds in different positions in words. Is the study of the sound systems of languages, and of the general properties displayed by these systems. It only studies the phonemes, the basic units which make differences of meaning within language.
THE VOWELS From a phonetic point of view, vowels are articulated with a relatively open configuration of the vocal tract. From a phonetical point of view, vowels are units of the sound system which typically occupy the middle ( the nucleus) of a syllable. Vowels typically involve the vibration of the vocal cords (voicing) and their distinctive resonances are made by varying the shape of the mouth, using the tongue and lips. CONSONANTS
From a phonetic point of view, consonants are articulated in one of two ways: either there is a closing movement of one of the vocal organs, forming such a narrow constriction that is possible to hear the sound of the air passing through; or the closing movement is complete, giving a total blockage.
- pitch or intonation system: different pitch levels are used in particular sequences to express a wide range of meanings ( they’re ready. ; they’re ready?)
- loudness : defines the difference between strong and weak (stressed and unstressed) syllables.
- speed or tempo: by speeding up or slowing down the rate at which we say syllables, words, phrases, and sentences, we can convey several kinds of meaning, such as excitement and impatience, or emphasis and thoughtfulness.
18. THE WRITING SYSTEM
Writing can refer to either a process (we are writing) or a result (we have finished); can refer to either an everyday or a professional activity ; written language refers to any visual manifestation of spoken language.
Writing is a way of communicating which uses a system of visual marks made on some kind of surface, it is one kind of graphic expression.
Graphology is the study of the linguistic contrasts that writing system express and it recognizes the grapheme, the smallest unit in the writing system capable of using a contrast in meaning. Graphemes are usually transcribed in angle brackets < >.
Graphetics is the study of the way human beings make, transmit, and receive written symbols.
PUNCTUATION
Its primary purpose is to enable stretches of written language to be read coherently, by displaying their grammatical structure; also gives the reader clues about the prosody; highlight semantic units or contrasts present in the text but not directly related to its grammatical structure; may add a semantic dimension.
19. VARIETIES OF DISCOURSE
MICROLINGUISTIC STUDIES
Variety in sociolinguistics: a variety, also called a lect , is a specific form of a language or language cluster. Sociolinguistic features relate to very broad situational constraints on language use, and chiefly identify the regional and social varieties of the language. They are relatively permanent, background features of the spoken or written language, over which we have relatively little conscious control. Stylistic features relate to constraints on language use that are much more narrowly constrained, and identify personal preferences in usage or the varieties associated with occupational groups, they are relatively temporary features of our spoken or written language. A factor which fundamentally influences the linguistic character of a use of language is the number of participants involved in the activity. The distinction is between:
MONOLOGUE DIALOGUE
- only one person is involved in the linguistic act
- associated w/ the activities of writing and reading
- does not mean that a person is alone, but it refers to an activity in which the language producer does not expect a response, even though an audience may be present and the language is conceived as a self- contained presentation
- Spoken monologue: a great deal of spoken monologue is written English read aloud, as for example the Queen’s speech at the opening parliament- a case where the expectation of response is as near to a theoretical zero point as it is possible to get.
- Written monologue: a book’s page
- Monologue variations:
▲ Audience present: the medium is speech and many spoken monologues presented to an audience are uninterruptable such as lectures and sermons. But there are several situations which do permit interruption: preachers facing many US black congregations are reinforced in their rhetoric by responses from their listeners; political speeches also play to the audience in this way; the pseudo-audience (a present audience but in no position to respond) such as the dentist who carries on a conversation while listener’s mouth is full of dental equipment. ▲ Audience absent: the case of literary expression but also speech activities such as people who talk to plants or any other
- typically two people are involved
- associated w/ the activities of speaking and listening
- participants expect each other to respond , and it contains many linguistic features which enable this to happen (question forms)
- Spoken dialogue: everyday informal conversation is the archetypal case of spoken dialogue
- Written dialogue: questionnaires and registration forms are classically dialogic in form, their whole purpose being to elicit a response.
- Dialogue variations: ▲ Symmetrical dialogue: the simultaneously usage of language such as in the case of two groups of protesters , both carrying placards expressing their views, the juxtaposition of written texts would produce a kind of dialogue. In speech: cases of public political confrontations, dinners parties where a person might end up contributing to two conversations at the same time. A dialogue depending on a third party, or intermediate: in foreign- language interpreting and translation, where A has to communicate with B via C; a loud-voiced person in a restaurant may cause a couple at another table to provide their own responses (sotto voce) to what is said.
▲ Asymmetrical dialogue: the participant is imagining someone else to be present, the one who should start the conversion or the one who should respond , as when we call
In the present century radio, television, and cinema links, coupled w/ a vast increase in travelling mobility and the arrival of the Internet, have brought a universal awareness that English dialects operate on a world scale.
If you went to the US, and picked up a daily newspaper, you’d be able to read it. The usage is standard, and we can describe this international kind of written English as standard English. The idea of a standard English applies to speech, too and when people don’t speak or write according to the rules ofo standard English, you can say that they’re using language in a nonstandard way, or a substandard English.
Regional tags : In Standard English, tag questions agree w/ the main verb of the clause ( You didn’t resign, didn’t you?). There are two types of tags:
- Invariant tags: where English is spoken as a second language, an invariant tag construction has arisen avoiding the syntactic complexity of the tag question in the standard language ( is it – isn’t it? ; not so? ; no? ; eh – right?).
- Variant tags: are likely to be found within a first language community, wgere the problem of syntactic complexity is not really an issue ( oughtn’t – shouldn’t ).
AmE AND BrE ENGLISH
As we move away from the formal written English of the press in the direction of the informal spoken language, the differences between regional varieties dramatically increase. The variation of American and British English is considerable (i.e. a major increase in the amount of influence the two models have had on each other, especially AmE on BrE (influence of US movies and television has turned into active use, especially among younger people; regional dialect surveys of both countries ).
In describing the lexicon of the two regions, there are three distinctions which have to be made:
- some words are found only in AmE
- some words are found only in BrE
- some have become established throughout the world as part of Standard English (WSE)
LEXICAL DIFFERENCES
- some words reflect cultural differences but are not part of WSE ( Ivy League ; A-levels)
- some words are straightforward: they have a single sense, and a synonym in the other variety ( BrE estate car = AmE station wagon)
- some words have one meaning in WSE and a synonym in one or other of the two varieties ( both have p harmacy but AmE has d rugstore and BrE has chemist’s)
- some words have no WSE meaning, but different meaning in AmE and BrE (BrE flyover = AmE overpass).
- the effect of frequency: some words are used in both varieties, but are much more common in one of them (BrE flat = AmE apartment)
GRAMMATICAL DIFFERENCES
There are relatively few grammatical differences between educated BrE and AmE. A leading reference grammar notes regional trends affecting only morphology or syntax, individual items and very few points of syntactic construction:
- verb phrase: AmE prefers have to have got for possession ( Do you have time?)
- answers: AmE prefers I don’t to I haven’t ; burned to burnt
- AmE uses a simple past tense where BrE has a present perfect ( I just ate vs. I’ve just eaten )
- noun phrase: differences of word order (AmE a half hour vs. half an hour ; the use of article (AmE in the future; in the hospital vs. in future; in hospital)
- clausal patterns: AmE come take a look vs. come and take
- use of subjunctive: AmE prefers the use of subjunctive I asked that he go vs. I asked him to go.
- prepositions and adverbs: AmE I’ll go momentarily vs. I’ll go in a moment; real good vs. really good.
REGIONAL VARIATION IN AMERICAN ENGLISH
There exist three broad (strong) dialect areas:
- Northern: historically it is the area of New England > distinctive accent w/ the loss of final (postvocalic) –r
- Southern: frequent loss of final –r
- Midland: general uniformity in American English speech. DARE: The Dictionary of American Regional English is the official dictionary of the American Dialect Society.
ESTUARY ENGLISH
The term ‘estuary’ was coined to identify the way features of London regional speech seemed to be rapidly spreading throughout Essex and Kent and beyond. It is spoken by a large and growing number of people (thanks to social mobility and new patterns of settlement) in the South of England, trying to speak in a way that they perceive to be more down to earth. , and it is tipped to dominate general British pronunciation within 50 years. It may therefore be the result of two social trends:
- an up – market movement of originally Cockney speakers
- a down – market trend towards ‘ordinary’ speech by the middle class.
