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Introduction to English Language Teaching
Book: Introduction to English Language teaching.Müller-Hartmann und Martha Schocker von Ditfurth
21.10.
Experience Reflection Application
How have I experienced foreign language learning using theories and critical insight?
How do I explain and reflect ways of teaching and learning a foreign language?
How can I apply theories and research in the FL classroom?
Teacher Education – Three Models:
Model 1 – The craft model (learning from a model)
Study with `master? Practitioner Practice Professional competence demonstration/instruction
Problem: No individual development
Model 2 – The applied science model
Scientific knowledge Transmitted by experts Application of knowledge in practice Prof.com. (lectures, relevant readings)
Model 3 – The reflective model
Teacher competencies and abilities:
- Be the language role model
- Have proper presentation skills
- Equal treatment/Fairness/Individual treatment
- Passions (beyond curriculum)
- Motivation
- Transparency of grading system
- Well structured (classroom management)
- Authenticity
- Encouraging
Scientific Knowledge
Previous experimental knowledge
Practice Reflection Professional Competence
28.10.14 The Teacher
Roles:
- Source of expertise
- Management roles
- Source of advice
- Facilitator of learning
- Sharing roles
- Caring roles
- Creator of classroom atmosphere
- Evaluator
- Example of behaviour and hard work
- Life-long learner
(Karavas/Dukas 1995 in Hedge 2000)
- Teachers need to help learners find out about learning strategies which support their respective learning preferences.
Learning Theories:
- General theories how humans aquire knowledge/competences they need to survive, live in a particular environment, master different situations to understand “the world” and to develop into social beings
- Provide general framework for theories and hypotheses about learning a language
- Teaching a foreign language relies on hypotheses of how FLs are learned
- For teachers, it is important to be aware of and reflect the underlying hypotheses and theories.
- They determine the aims and ways of teaching a foreign language and of every single step in the classroom
Theories: Behaviourist, Nativist, Cognitive, Constructivist
Behaviourist Theories:
Concerned with data gathered from observable behaviour. The process of learning is understood as a conditioning process over many levels in which a certain reaction or response on a specific stimulation is reinforced through positive feedback until it becomes a habit.
- 1950s and 1960s: Dominant psychological theory
- Behaviour is defined as an adequate to a specific stimulus
- Learning is a process of conditioning: Teaching aims at forming habits and trains appropriate behaviour through positive feedback.
- Habit formation = stimulus response
Mentalist/Nativist theories:
1960s psychology and linguistics: Major shift from nurture to nature.
L1 acquisition: Humans have a natural disposition for language acquisition. Linguistic competence and knowledge is innate. LAD: Language Acquisition Device (faculty for leaning language) Input is needed, but only to ‘trigger’ the operation of the LAD.
First and other languages:
First lang. – Second lang. – Foreign lang.
Multilingualism: Languages are converted
Languages influence each other (e.g. interference errors)
Personal (language) learning history
Learner beliefs (e.g. how long should be learned)
Age
- Are younger learners better learners?
- Is there a critical period for language learning?
- Need for further research especially in EFL-settings
- Lang. learning context matters (exposure, motivation and dependency on language)
- Young learners: Less inhibition, ability to imitate (e.g. pronunciation), holistic approach
- Adult learners: Cognitive approach, world knowledge, knowledge of other languages, identity, potentially face threatening situation.
Intelligence
Relationship between IQ and lang. learning ability unclear, esp. concerning communication and interaction skills
Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligence (MI):
- Linguistic (“word smart”)
- Logical/mathematical (“number/reasoning smart”
- Visual (“picture smart”)
- Musical (“music smart”)
- Bodily/kinaesthetic (“body smart”)
- Interpersonal (“people smart”)
- Intrapersonal (“self smart”)
11.11.14 The Learner
Individual factors:
Personality:
- Extroversion
- Inhibition
- Self-esteem
- Empathy (makes it easier to communicate)
Attitude and Motivation:
Attitude:
- Towards the language, it’s speakers, their cultures
Motivation: Highly complex phenomenon
- Learners communicative needs
- Intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation / integrative vs. instrumental motivation
Learner types:
Concrete Analytical Communicative Authorityoriented Games Pictures Pairwork Concrete tasks
Grammar books News papers Individual work
Listening Talking to friends Using English out of class Writing with native speakers
Teacher to explain everything Textbook Notebook Grammar Reading
The good language learner:
Rebecca Oxford Learning strategies are…
“… steps taken by students to enhance their own learning. Strategies are especially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed involvement which is essential for developing communicative competence. Appropriate language learning strategies result in improved proficiency and greater self-confidence.
Examples of strategies :
- Affective
- Social
- Cognitive (Memonics, structuring information)
- Metacognitive (Planning your learning process: Time, strategy)
Classroom Design
- Connection to culture representation through posters, movies, songs, meals
- Different use of media/Equipment getting access to the culture
- Competition/challenges
Dimensions of the FLC (Foreign Lang. Classroom)
Persons
Processes
Procedures
Products
Curricular dimension
Subjects, syllabi, languages curriculum
Social dimension
Students, teachers, group, social relations
Temporal dimension
Time limits, progression, tempo, rhythm, processes
Spatial/physical dimension
„the room“, seating, design, stimuli
Institutional dimension
School (system), size of group, coeducation
- PISA 2001
- IGLU 2003
- DESI 2008
Publication of CER 2001: C ommon E uropean Framework of R eference for Modern Languages
standardization on
- European level (CER)
- Nationwide level (Bildungsstandards)
- Level of the German states (Bundesländer) (new curricula)
What is Competence? (IMPORTANT)
Kompetenzen sind die bei Individuen verfügbaren oder von ihnen erlernbaren kognitiven Fähigkeiten und Fertigkeiten, bestimmte Probleme zu lösen, sowie die damit verbundenen volitionalen, motivationalen und sozialen Bereitschaften und Fähigkeiten, die Problemlösungen in variable Situationen nutzen zu können. (Weinart 2001)
Volitional: Your will to do something
Competence orientation – competences and learning outcome:
- Abilities
- Skills
- Knowledge
- Attitudes
Competences:
Die individuelle Ausprägung der Kompetenz muss verstanden werden, al sein komplexes Bündel aus:
- Fähigkeiten und Fertigkeiten
- Bereitschaft
- Wissen
- Verstehen
- Können
- Problemlösen und Handeln
- Erfahrungen
- Einstellungen (z.B. soziale, ethische)
- Motivation
Kompetenzorientierter Unterricht: (Leitfaden zum Kerncurriculum)
Lernsituation gestalten:
- Individualisierung
- Schülerorientierung durch Stärkung selbstständigen Lernens, Spielwege für individuelle Lernwege
- Längerfristiger Aufbau von Kompetenzen in größeren Entwicklungsabschnitten
- Kompetenzorientierte Lernaufgaben mit lebensnahen Zusammenhängen, variablen Zugängen und unterschiedlicher Verarbeitungstiefe
Leistungssituation gestalten:
- Unterrichtsbegleitende, fördernde Beurteilung von Leistungen
- Beurteilung des Lernergebnisses und der Prozessleistung
- Dokumentation von Lernergebnissen (z.B. Portfolio)
- Gespräche über Lernwege und -ergebnisse
- Verfahren der Selbsteinschätzung, peer feedback
What is CER?
- Developed since 1991
- Published 2001 by the European Union
Goals:
- Provide an instrument to compare individual language abilities
- Provide a model of competence
- Be a help for planning FLT
- FLT concepts, materials, courses, certificates etc. comparable
- 6 levels of language proficiency
- Users can do descriptions
- Structured along five skills: listening, speaking, reading, writing and mediating
02.12.
CER is used for:
- National language standards
- European language portfolio
- Course books
- Course systems
- Calibration of testing systems
- Syllabus design
Bildungsstandards (2004) – German national educational standards:
- From input to output
- Outcome (can do) and descriptions (communicative competences)
- Comparability of FL abilities across Bundesländer, schools, classes
- Minimum level standards (Regelstandards) Competences in the educational standards of the KMK (ständige Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder, 2004)
- Funktionale Kompetenzen
- Kommunikative Fertigkeiten
- Verfügung über die sprachlichen Mittel
- Interkulturelle Kompetenzen
- Methodische Kompetenzen
Focus on learning outcomes
- Describe what learners are expected to be able to do in a subject
- Define different competence areas, refer to different competence levels, are illustrated by sample tasks
- Are to be assessed regularly with the help of tests (Vergleichsarbeiten)
The five skills
Very artificial they are not independent from each other
- Mediating between people who speak different languages German – Englisch Competence oriented
Teaching listening:
One of the most important skills takes place before speaking!
Assignment: Film: Ae Fond Kiss
- To what extend do subtitles facilitate listening comprehension?
- In what extend does the visual dimension support verbal comprehension?
- How else can listening comprehension be facilitated?
Teaching listening:
Difficulties depend on:
- Complexity of the text
- Amount of information
- Number of participants/speakers
- Pace of delivery
- Speakers’ accents
- Background music, sound quality
- Degree of topical familiarity
- Motivation
- Quality of support, ‘scaffolding’ (visual clues, guiding questions, focussing)
Teaching reading and listening:
- Interaction with readers, speakers and texts
- Decoding
- (Re)activating linguistic (lexical etc.) knowledge
- Contextualization
Spokenlanguage
Productiveskills
Writtenlanguage
Receptiveskills Mediation
Task-supported stages:
Pre-stage:
- ‘tune readers in’ to the topic
- Contextualize the text
- Activate prior knowledge
- Reactivate linguistic (lexical etc.) knowledge
- Create confidence
Creating attention and activating pre-knowledge
While-stage:
- Following and collecting information
- Noting down keywords
- Responding to attitudes expressed
- Reflecting on what is said or written
- Preparing personal statements or comments
- Filling in gaps, grids, forms, charts etc.
- Putting statements or pictures in order
- With progress from easy to difficult tasks
Global or detailed comprehension
Post-stage:
- Reflection and evaluation
- Consolidating and acquiring language
- Extension of context and topical work, e.g. by summarizing, writing a letter, preparing interview questions on the same or a similar topic, research on the topic (internet, library etc.)
Free use of new information
Teaching reading:
L2 reading ability, particularly with English as the L2, is already in great demand as English continues to spread, not only as a global language but also as the language of science, technology and advance research. (Grabe&Stoller 2002)
Reading purposes – Why read?
- Skimming: Getting the gist (Kern/Wesentliches), global impression
- Scanning: Rapid search for specific information
- Intensive Reading: Careful study for detailed understanding
- Extensive Reading: Reading large quantities of longer texts on a frequent and regular basis
- Skipping: Reading rapidly while leaving out words.
Bottom-up strategies
- Processing individual letters and words
- Processing sentences and paragraphs
- Processing the organisation of the text
- Relating and connecting elements of a text to other parts of the text
- Using structuring information
06.01.15 Teaching Vocabulary
Example questions:
- Think of 10 things you can do with a cabbage
- List words with at least four syllables (Antidisestablishmentarianism – longest word [English])
Vocabulary size of English:
54.000 word families (Head form + suffix forms and inflected forms)
37.000 words used by Shakespeare
20.000 – educated native speaker
- – 5.000 – native speaker children
The mental lexicon
- Input : How language is taken in
- Storage : How language is held and not lost
- Retrieval : How language can be called up when needed)
Storage and exercise
Storage and exercise making strong memory connections, memorable teaching (personalised, interesting, meaningful tasks) – words in different context.
Retrieval
Introducing varied materials/media; learner training strategies and techniques help students to find things they can do for themselves at home.
Meaning Relationships:
- Synonyms
- Antonyms
- Superordinates (Animal = General concept)
- Subordinates/Hyponyms (Lion = specific element)
- Co-ordinates (Lion, dog, and mouse = related elements = animals)
- Collocation (words that go together (blonde + hair > yellow + hair // to draw a conclusion)
- Translation
What does it mean to know a word (What needs to be taught?)
- The meaning
- The form (pronunciation and spelling)
- Grammatical patterns
- Register/Style (Situations when the word is used or not used)
- Collocation (co-occurrence)
Implications for teaching
Presentation techniques: Varied and multi-channel! (Illustration, mime, synonyms, definition)
Storage and exercise making strong memory connections, memorable teaching (personalised, interesting, meaningful tasks) – words in different context.
Teaching Grammar
How should we teach?
Deductive Inductive
Explicit Traditional Rule discovery
teaching
Implicit Using parameters Learning L1 from Input
What should we teach?
- Comprehensibility
- Acceptability
- Scope
- Frequency
- Relevance
Implications for Language Teaching:
- Grammar & words are not distinct systems
- In language teaching we always have to consider all dimensions when teaching grammar
- One possible way: Freeman's tripartite scheme
Dimensions of Grammar - Example:
- Form : How is it formed?
- Phonemes
- Graphemes
- Signs
- Grammatical morphemes (inflections and function words)
- Syntactic patterns
- Meaning : What does it mean?
- Words (lexemes)
- Derivational morphemes
- Multiword lexical strings
- Notions
- Use : When/why is it used?
- Social functions (speech acts such as promising, inviting, etc.)
- Discourse patterns (e.g. contribution to cohesion within texts)
Comparison:
Linguistic grammar Pedagogical grammar
- comprehensive • selecting
- abstract • concrete
- short • detailed
- no focus on language learning • focus on criteria of language learning (understandability, applicability, easy to remember)
Teaching literature, culture, and film/inter-transcultural learning
Trancultural cross-cultural plural cultural
Forming an identity with aspects of different cultures
What is culture? How can we teach it?
3 Dimensions of culture (interconnected)
- Mental dimension : mentality
- Social dimension: Society and its institutions
- Material dimension : Texts and new artefacts
Teaching films/using films in the EFL classroom :
- popularity and motivation ("Video is today's medium")
- audiovisual attraction
- personal significance
- training of audio-visual literacy ("To learn to speak to people, they must see and hear people speaking to each other")
Ways of presenting a film in class:
Four approaches =>
- block presentation : The whole movie is presented without any interruptions
- interval presentation : Sequencing the film in scenes of about 15 min., watching the whole movie during a few lessons
- sandwich presentation : Only selected scenes are presented, the rest is orally summarized
- segment presentation : Only selected scenes are presented (e.g. the opening of a film)
Approach Advantages disadvantages Block presentation
- natural way of watching films
- identification
- time efficient
- passive consuming
- absence of didactic preparation
- lack of didactic efficiency
- end of school year feeling Interval presentation
- possibility of didactic presentation
- pre/while/post viewing activities can be included in each lesson
- the whole movie can be watched
- fragmentation of the film
- loss of tension
- time exposure (6-10 lessons)
- unnatural way of watching films Sandwich presentation
- possibility of didactic presentation
- pre/while/post viewing activities can be included in each lesson
- little time exposure
- skipping less important parts
- fragmentation of the film
- problems of comprehension
- time exposure
Segment presentation
- focus on key scenes
- little time exposure
- didactic methodical flexibility
- repeated presentation possible
- isolation of one scene
- neglecting important film aspects
- reducing the entertainment value
Culture
Pay attention to:
- Field size (long, medium long, full, medium (American), close-up, extreme close-up shot)
- Point of view (establishing, over-the-shoulder, point-of-view, reverse-angle)
- Camera movement (pan/horizontal, tilt/vertical, tracking, zoom)
- Camera angles (birds-eye view, high, eye-level, low, below)
- Voice-over (on-screen/off-screen) and music!
Challenges:
- Time consuming, curricular restrictions
- Interval/sandwich/segment presentation: Curtailing film as aesthetic product
- Entertainment role of film still pre-dominant -> inviting students to switch to "passive mode"
- Linguistic challenges: Spoken language (fast & slurred), slang expressions/swear words, omissions, distracting background noise, etc.
- Different types of information (auditory/visual)
- Influencing/manipulating audience (e.g. offering one-sided or wrong information)
- Difficulty to find a film every student likes
- Inexperienced teachers rarely use films in the EFLC, 16% never
Positive:
- Training of productive competences
- Intertextual-literary competences (film on book, book on film)
- Intercultural learning (the movie as a "moving picture book")
- Media/film literacy (formal-aesthetic and content-critical film literacy)
Media:
Definition: ( linguistic view )
- Medium = physical transfer of a message, i.e. an oral or written message
Definition: ( communication studies )
- Technical mean to spread a message to a large audience, mass media
Definition: ( educational )
- The medium as conveyor (as mediator) in order to gain knowledge and to acquire skills => ESL classroom: - Medium as a mean to convey information - Medium as a vehicle for communication
Consequently, the ESL-Teacher has to:
- Think about the provision and the design of media in the classroom ( media arrangement )
- Think about the integration of media in the teaching process ( function )
- Think about the use of media by the learner
The coursebook - necessary or not?
- Optimal use of the coursebook, does not mean maximum use of it
- 3 teacher types:
- Type A (coursebook type): - Uses the cb intensively
- Type B (combi-type): - Accepts it, but adds further material
- Type C (DIY-type): - Uses only own material or copies from many different cbs
ICILS 2013 (International Computer & Information Literacy Study):
- skill tasks (use of software)
- information-based response tasks (multiple-choice questions)
- authoring tasks (creating information products -> PPP, homepage)
Results:
- As in most studies, students with an immigrant background or with lower social background are doing significantly worse
- Girls are doing significantly better than boys (even though boys have a higher perceived self- efficiency)
Schools:
- 11.5 : 1 (student-computer relation; EU 11.6 : 1, Norway 2.4 : 1)
- Germany: traditional computer classrooms (6.5% tablets in the classroom, EU 15,9%, Australia 63.6%)
- IWB (5.5 on average; Netherlands: 25.5) Teacher:
- Majority positive view on IT school (below EU average)
- However: Above EU average when asked about negative views
- organizational fear
- copy & paste effect
(New) Media Literacy :
Definition:
- Literacy involves gaining the skills and knowledge to read and interpret the text of the world and to successfully navigate and negotiate its challenges and crises.
A media-literate person:
- ...is skillful in analysing media codes and conventions
- ...is able to criticize stereotypes, values and ideologies
- ...is competent to interpret the multiple meanings and messages, generated by media texts
Media Literary thus helps:
- ...to use media intelligently
- ...to discriminate and evaluate media content
- ...to dissect media forms critically
- ...to investigate media effects and uses
Content of teaching media literacy:
Teaching dimensions Definition
- Cognitive dimension - having knowledge about media
- Dimensions of action - to choose & use media on purpose
- Moral dimension - to view media critically, analysing and evaluating media texts
- Aesthetic dimension - to develop own media texts
- Affective dimension - ability to enjoy media
