Effective Group Learning in Chemistry: A Student-Centered Approach, Exams of Chemistry

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A Guide To Teaching

With Modules

Joanne L. Stewart

Valorie L. Wilkerson

Hope College

Fall 1999

Appendix B: How Can You Learn From Our Modular Approach?

• Chapter 1: Why Modules?............................ Introduction ..........................................................................................iii
• History
  • Creating the Modules
• Chapter 2: What Is A Module?......................
• First Session: A Starting Point and “Buy In” .................................
  • Examples of First Sessions
• Middle Sessions: The Inquiry.............................................................
  • Explorations........................................................................................................................
  • Looking Back: What Have You Learned?......................................................................
  • Checking Your Progress
  • Thinking Further
  • An Example of a Middle Session....................................................................................
• Final Session: Culminating Activity ...................................................
  • Examples of Culminating Activities...............................................................................
• Chapter 3: How to Promote Student Learning
• Active Learning and the Interactive Classroom ............................
  • Getting Started: Pair Learning
  • Getting Students Up Front or At the Microphone in Class ...................................
• Cooperative Learning ...........................................................................
  • Positive Group Interdependence and Individual Accountability...........................
  • Developing Small Group Skills .......................................................................................
  • Group Processing and Reflection ..................................................................................
  • Grading................................................................................................................................
  • Forming Groups .................................................................................................................
  • Jigsaw .................................................................................................................................
  • Group Discussions.............................................................................................................
• Writing to Learn..................................................................................
  • Writing to Assess Prior Knowledge .............................................................................
  • Minute Papers....................................................................................................................
  • Culminating Activities..................................................................................................... ii
• Laboratory Exercises
  • Guided Inquiry..................................................................................................................
  • Open-ended Inquiries.....................................................................................................
• Using the Computer.............................................................................
  • Graphing.............................................................................................................................
  • Modeling ............................................................................................................................
  • World Wide Web.............................................................................................................
  • Discussion Boards............................................................................................................
• Chapter 4: What to Expect as an Instructor
• Getting Ready
  • Getting Staff On-Board ................................................................................................
  • Adapting the Module ......................................................................................................
  • Gathering Materials........................................................................................................
  • Computer Needs ..............................................................................................................
  • The Culture of the Last Minute...................................................................................
• Jumping In............................................................................................
  • Student Concerns............................................................................................................
  • Instructor Concerns .......................................................................................................
  • Grading...............................................................................................................................
• Next Time
• Some Final Thoughts..........................................................................
• References...........................................
• Appendix A: Assessment of Student Learning Gains

iii

Introduction

A Guide to Teaching with Modules is meant as a companion to the individual instructor’s manuals, written to support the ChemConnections Modules. This “super” instructor’s manual introduces instructors to the active learning and discovery-based approach used in the modules, and provides concrete suggestions on how to implement these ap- proaches in the classroom. The Guide is divided into four sections. The first section, Why Modules? , describes why the ChemConnections modules were developed and how they may be used to replace or supplement a more traditional introductory chemistry class. The second section, What is a Module? , explains how each module focuses on a central question and how Sessions , Explorations , and Culminating Activities are used to guide students to answer that question. The heart of the Guide is the third section, How to Implement Student Learning. By using many examples from the modules, the active learning approach is made accessi- ble for beginning instructors, and the experienced instructor finds new teaching ideas and learns more about modules. In the final section, What to Expect as an Instructor , assessment information from early tests of the modular approach is used to help instructors prepare to teach with modules and to anticipate student concerns. ChemConnections modules create a dynamic, student-centered learning environ- ment for chemistry students. This Guide provides concise suggestions on how to get started and concrete examples of how active learning is used in the modules. Chem- Connections materials are flexible and adaptable, and instructors are encouraged to adapt and adopt the modules to fit their own student learning goals, interests, and resources. The authors of A Guide to Teaching With Modules would like to thank Truman Schwartz, Eileen Lewis, Elaine Seymour, Joshua Gutwill, Sandra Laursen, Trish Ferrett, and Barbara Heaney for their helpful comments and suggestions.

Chapter 1: Why Modules?

History

In 1995 The National Science Foundation (NSF) launched the Systematic Changes in Undergraduate Chemistry Curriculum Initiative with the aim of improving undergraduate chemistry education. This new program followed in the footsteps of similar initiatives in mathematics and engineering, and was in direct response to calls for curriculum reform in chemistry over many years (Gillespie and Humphreys, 1980; Bodner and Herron, 1980; ACS Educational Policies, 1989; A Nation at Risk, 1983; Carter and Brickhouse, 1989). In the original program announcement, NSF sought changes in the chemistry curriculum that would encourage the integration of the chemistry with related disciplines, enhance learning and appreciation of science, and affect all levels of undergraduate instruction. The NSF encouraged institutions to combine their efforts and expertise (NSF, 1999). A total of five large projects were funded by the Systematic Chemistry Initiative. Each project involves a different consortium of academic institutions, with broad representa- tion from two-year colleges, four-year liberal arts colleges, and comprehensive and research universities. While the five chemistry initiatives represent a variety of perspec- tives, they share the goal of improving the undergraduate educational experience by using new pedagogical strategies such as group work, hands-on learning, real-world problem solving, and technology enhanced learning as techniques for increasing student engagement in their own learning processes. The ChemConnections modules are a product of the combined efforts of two of these consortia, ChemLinks Coalition and ModularChem Consortium.^1 These two groups worked together to produce chemistry modules focused on real-world questions and using student-centered, active learning pedagogy.

Creating the Modules

The ChemConnections modules' focus on active learning is based on a deep under- standing of how students learn most effectively. Cooperative learning, writing across the curriculum, and guided discovery-based learning have all been shown to increase higher-level thinking and problem solving as well as retention of material. The goal of the modules is to provide resources to instructors that will allow them to transform their classrooms into active, student-centered learning environments. Many faculty are interested in this student-centered pedagogical approach, but have found that develop- ing activities that fit together well, tell a coherent story, and cover the appropriate chemistry content is very time-intensive. ChemConnections modules cover a broad

(^1) The members of ChemLinks are Beloit College, Carleton College, College of

Wooster, Colby Community College, Colorado Community College, Eastern Idaho Technical College, Edmonds Community College, Grinnell College, Hope College, Kalamazoo College, Knox College, Lawrence University, Malacester College, Montana Tech of the University of Montana, Pierce College, Rhodes College, Spelman College, Spokane Community College, St.Olaf College, University of Chicago, Washington University–St.Louis. The members of ModularChem are University of Califor- nia–Berkeley, University of California–San Diego, California State University–Hayward, California State University–Los Angeles, Clark Atlanta University, Mills College, More- house College, Cañada College, Contra Costa College, Diablo Valley College, Laney College, Merritt College, Mesa College, Miramar College, Ohlone Community College, Vista College.

range of chemical topics and provide active learning activities that guide students through the scientific process. The current paradigm for teaching recognizes that knowledge is constructed, discov- ered, and extended by students as they interact with their environment. The instructor is important in the learning process as she creates conditions which support and encour- age students to construct meaning. For example, classroom research dating back as far as 1929 shows the benefits of cooperative learning over competitive or individualistic learning. Cooperative learning helps students achieve in the areas of long-term retention of material, intrinsic motivation, higher-level reasoning, academic and social support for all students, social development, and self-esteem. (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1994) It has also been shown that students learn best when they can build on past experi- ence, relate what they are learning to things that are relevant to them, have direct "hands-on" experience, construct their own knowledge in collaboration with other students and faculty, and communicate their results effectively (Anthony et al., 1998). The modules, therefore, are based on a question from the student's surroundings such as: What should we do about global warming? , and How can we purify our water? Finally, the integration of laboratory work into the context of problem solving is an important goal of the modules. The inquiry-based laboratory activities are designed to allow students to discover at least some of the chemical principles underlying the experiments. There are also opportunities for students to design experiments and communicate their results. Module instructors have responded enthusiastically to the transformation of their classrooms into places of rich, active learning. In fact, many have said that they would never "go back" to a more traditionally structured classroom. Teaching with modules creates a lively, dynamic environment where learning, thinking, and doing science are of primary importance.

Students read articles from the popular literature about the development of blue LED’s. They are given a set of discussion questions with the readings that help them understand why this is an important topic. They brainstorm either individually or in groups on applications of blue LED’s and blue diode lasers and on things they will need to learn to be able to answer the module question “ How can you get blue light from a solid ?”

Why Does The Ozone Hole Form In The Antarctic Spring? Session 1: What Does the Public Know about Ozone?

Students are asked to write about one aspect of the ozone hole with which they are already familiar. Groups then gather to formulate questions about ozone they would like answered. Finally students are introduced to media claims about ozone. They are asked to continue thinking about these claims throughout the module so they can be prepared to respond to them in a formal report for the culminating activity.

Computer Chip Thermochemistry: How Can We Create an Integrated Circuit From Sand? Session 1: How can we create an integrated circuit from sand?

The instructor guides students through a demonstration that shows the major com- ponents of a circuit and their functions. Students then look at integrated circuits either with a magnifying glass or on the CD-ROM that comes with the module and compare them to the circuits they looked at in the demonstration. Finally, students look at internet resources or simulations on their CD-ROM to learn what chemical reactions are used to build integrated circuits.

Earth, Wind and Fire: What Is Needed To Make an Effective Air-Bag System? Session 1: What is needed to make an effective air-bag system?

Students watch a video showing what happens to dummies in car crashes and are asked to brainstorm requirements for an effective air-bag system. Students then develop a plan to study how air-bags are inflated by using resources from the virtual company Air-Bags 'R' Us provided on the CD-ROM.

Middle Sessions: The Inquiry

The middle sessions are the heart of the module. They contain student exercises, laboratories, and computer activities that enable students to understand the chemistry and develop the skills they need in order to answer the module question. The activities and laboratories are called Explorations. The structure of the middle sessions and the Explorations are where a lot of the flexibility is built into the module. Instructors may choose which Explorations fit their goals and resources.

Explorations

The goal of an Exploration is either to learn something that is needed to answer a Session question or to go beyond a Session question and consider ideas that are related

to the Session. Students may be given readings and discussion questions that they work on individually and in small groups. A worksheet involving chemical calculations may be completed in small groups. Students may design and carry out a laboratory experiment, such as measuring how much carbon dioxide they exhale in a year. They may examine real atmospheric data from the Internet and work in pairs to answer a set of questions about the data. An Exploration is not of any one fixed length. It may be completed in- class or it may include an out-of-class component such as reading, writing, homework problems, or computer exercises. Instructors do not need to include all of the Explora- tions in a Session. The module’s instructor’s manual will indicate which Explorations are most critical for answering the Session question and which ones are less critical. The title of an Exploration contains a question to be answered by the Exploration and a phrase indicating what chemistry content will be covered. The Exploration begins with a Creating the Context section, which is usually brief text that introduces and frames the Exploration question and connects it to the module story line. The Preparing for Inquiry section includes the background reading, activities, and/or questions that help students prepare on their own for the main activities in the Exploration. This may be pre-lab questions or pre-class homework or reading. The Building Ideas section is the centerpiece for the guided inquiry that develops the core ideas in the Exploration. It can be done in many different ways and usually uses active and/or cooperative learning. Students concisely answer the Exploration question at the end of this section. Most Explorations contain more practice problems or questions using the chemistry ideas and thinking skills that were developed in the Exploration. These problems may be used as either additional in-class work, as out-of-class homework, or as test questions. At the end of each middle session is a section called Making the Link. This section allows students to reflect on the chemistry they have learned in the context of the module question, and may ask students to examine the chemistry in other contexts. Making the Link contains the following parts.

Looking Back: What Have You Learned?

This is a list of chemistry concepts and thinking skills that were covered in the session.

Checking Your Progress

This includes text and/or activities that integrate the idea, connect to the Session Question and story line, assess progress on the culminating activity, and look ahead.

Thinking Further

This section may contain additional problems that could be used for homework or tests, or there may be additional readings supplied that the module authors found particularly interesting. Some modules have sections that allow students to apply their new knowl- edge and skills in a different context.

An Example of a Middle Session

As an example of a middle Session, we will examine Session 4 in Fats, How is Fat a Concentrated Energy Source? The Explorations are: Exploration 4A How do we get energy from what we eat? Exploration 4B How is energy stored in chemical bonds? Making The Link How is fat a concentrated energy source?

sion, where students first become experts on one step (plating, etching, etc.) then the experts come together in a group to plan out the best sequence of steps for making an integrated circuit. In the other option, students actually design and make a complex pattern on an aluminum substrate. This takes more time, but it is more hands-on than the discussion.

Why Does The Ozone Hole Form In The Antarctic Spring?

There are two options for the culminating activity. The first option asks students to use scientific data and reasoning to write a persuasive response to incorrect media claims. The second option challenges students to teach peers who are not in the class about ozone. This project encourages students to have a complete grasp of the information and articulate the information in a way that is understandable.

Chapter 3: How to Promote Student Learning

Active Learning and the Interactive Classroom

Students construct knowledge by thinking and giving explanations about what they are learning. Active learning involves building activities into the class that allow students to examine, analyze, evaluate, and apply course-related concepts. The information in this section is intended to help instructors get started with teaching modules. The references that are provided throughout give more in-depth background information and examples of this approach to student learning. For any of the activities described here, the instructor should keep in mind some general "good practices." Each activity should have a beginning, a middle, and an end. To begin, the instructor may set the stage perhaps telling the students what material is to be covered during the class period or doing a demonstration. The students then continue with the activity planned for the day. At the end of class, the instructor facilitates a closure activity. This closure activity should review the goals accomplished during the class. This structure of setting the stage, doing the activity, and coming to closure should be applied to every class period. The instructor should also vary the types of activities that are used. Learning effec- tiveness is lost if the students are doing only worksheets or only small group discus- sions.

Getting Started: Pair Learning

There are many ways that students can be asked to interact with each other, and having students work in pairs is a simple way to get started. Working with one other student does not require complex organizational schemes, and it allows students to both express their ideas and make sense of the ideas of their partner.

Think-pair-share Think-pair-share is one of the easiest ways to get students actively involved in learning. The instructor asks students to "turn to their neighbor" to explain a demonstration, summarize key points of a lecture, complete a ConcepTest (for more information on ConcepTests see http://www.chem.wisc.edu/~concept or http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/nise/cl1/flag/cat/catframe.asp), or compare answers to a problem. These paired learning times are most effective when students are asked to take one minute to think individually about the problem at hand and write down answers or ideas. Students are then asked to take 2-3 minutes to discuss with a partner the answers or ideas. Finally, the pair reports to the whole class or to a small group (Millis & Cottell, 1998), (Kagan, 1992). Think-pair-share can be used to complete and discuss the ConcepTest questions in the module: Build A Better CD Player: How Can You Get Blue Light From A Solid? In Exploration 2A, questions are asked about the electrical conductance of certain ele- ments and the periodic trends of metals. Students are asked to vote individually on answers to the questions. If there is little class consensus, students are asked to turn to a partner and explain their reasoning, and then a second vote on the answers is taken. Think-pair-share can be used along with the demonstration in Exploration 2A of the module: Earth, Fire, and Air What is Needed to Make an Effective Air-Bag System? The instructor shows a series of demonstrations that illustrate gas behavior. Students are asked to make a list of macroscopic properties, identify these properties as physical or

Getting Students Up Front or At the Microphone in Class

Public speaking skills are important for all students, but students often feel very uncom- fortable when asked to speak in class. The structures of the activities in the ChemCon- nections modules help to alleviate this anxiety. In general, students first share their ideas with a partner or in a small group. The small group environment feels much safer to students, and everyone gets a chance to participate as opposed to whole class discus- sion, where only a small number of students participate. The small group specifies a “reporter” at the beginning of the activity, so that students know in advance who will be called on. Because students are reporting out for their whole group, they have much more confidence about what they are saying. The reporter position is rotated so all students will have a chance to speak at some time. Each group can be given an overhead transparency and pen to record their group responses. These transparencies aid in presenting material to the whole class by adding a visual presentation to the oral response. This approach takes less class time than writing on the chalkboard, because groups are making the product as they work in their group. If there is insufficient time for all groups to report out, as in larger classes, the in- structor should devise a way to call on groups randomly. Pulling seat numbers out of a hat or handing out playing cards and drawing a card from a deck are two possible approaches. In larger classes and in rooms with poor acoustics, it can be difficult for everyone to hear what is being reported. In this situation, using a portable microphone can have an amazing effect. In large, anonymous lecture halls it is quite gratifying to watch students “find their voices.” There are several opportunities to get students in front of the class throughout the modules. The most obvious of these examples is in the module: Would You Like Fries With That? The Fuss About Fat in Our Diet. The culminating activity is a debate over the topic: Resolved: The FDA approval of olestra should be revoked. For this final project, students present orally the pros and cons of this resolution. This encourages the students to express the results of research. This also requires the expression of critical thinking as students respond to opposing arguments. The culminating activity for the module: Earth, Fire, and Air What Is Needed to Make an Effective Air-Bag System? also includes a presentation. In option C of this culminat- ing activity, students make a poster explaining a new application of the air-bag technol- ogy they have been working with. These students present the poster in the same way as a professional poster would be presented at a conference. The students must defend their research and work to peers and instructors as they answer questions about their poster. There are many other opportunities to get students up front. Any time that students are to share data with the class there is an opportunity to have them speak to the class. In the module: Computer Chip Thermochemistry How Can We Create an Integrated Circuit From Sand? Exploration 4D contains a laboratory exercise focusing on the enthalpy change of reactions. To answer the questions, students must compare data from the entire class. While there are a number of ways students can report their data, such as posting to a discussion board on the web or making photocopies and handing them out in class, a good option would be to ask students to present their results in front of the class. Students can also have a chance to be in front of class while sharing predictions about demonstrations or sharing answers to worksheet questions.

Cooperative Learning

Many of the activities, discussions, and laboratory activities in the ChemConnections modules involve pedagogical approaches that use the basics of cooperative learning. Cooperative learning is based on the belief that learning is an active and constructive process, and that students benefit from organizing their ideas and giving explanations, as well as listening to alternate or conflicting ideas. Cooperative learning incorporates respect for students of all backgrounds, and it stresses that all students can be suc- cessful academically. Research shows that students benefit from cooperative learning in three major ar- eas. These areas are academic achievement, positive relationships between students, and psychological health including self-esteem (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1994).

Positive Group Interdependence and Individual Accountability

Research has shown that in order for cooperative learning to be effective, certain components must be promoted and structured into the learning activity. The two most important components are positive group interdependence and individual accountability. In order to help students work successfully in groups, the instructor should also find ways to enable students to develop interpersonal and small group skills and allow time for group processing or reflection. With positive interdependence , students feel that they truly need and depend on one another to complete the task at hand. The students feel they are linked together and are concerned with one another's success. All of the students must see that by helping the other members of the group achieve goals, they help themselves. Individual accountability means that students are ultimately held responsible for their own learning and for their contributions to the group process. This equality encourages a socially stable and emotionally safe working environment. To mandate this independent accountability, instructors must build some individual participation and objectives into the activity (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 1994). An example of an exercise that promotes positive interdependence and independent accountability can be found in the module: Would You Like Fries With That? The Fuss About Fat in Our Diet. The culminating activity is first described in Session 1. It is a debate which asks students to prepare and present two opposing sides to the topic: Resolve: FDA approval of olestra should be revoked. Two parts of the assignment are meant to be done in a group and two independently. Every student must turn in a debate brief which provides the factual support for the debate presentation. This is followed by the debate presentation, where each group presents one argument for or against the resolution. The group then takes a quiz, where students work together to answer questions about the chemical properties of fat and olestra. As a final component, the students write individual essays in the form of an editorial focusing on the student's view about what choices should be made concerning olestra. The students depend on each other to complete the debate presentation and the quiz, a show of positive interdepend- ence. They must each be responsible for the outcomes of the group work, which they demonstrate in their debate brief and editorial. This is a show of individual accountability. Another type of activity that builds in positive interdependence and individual ac- countability is a jigsaw. This type of activity is explained in more detail later, but an example is provided here to illustrate the components of cooperative learning. Session 6 in Water Treatment: How Can We Purify Our Water? asks students to develop a procedure to remove contaminants from a water supply. “Expert” groups meet first, with each expert group examining the chemistry of a different target ion: fluoride, iron, calcium, and magnesium. Then the students are shuffled into new groups, or “base”

EVALUATION

WITH THE MEMBERS OF YOUR GROUP, discuss and answer the following three questions.

1. List two new things you learned during the discussion.
2. List two things your group did well together.
3. List one thing your group could improve.

BY YOURSELF , check the response you most agree with.

OVERALL REACTIONS: GENERAL DYNAMICS:

lots some none Yes? No

I learned ___ ___ ___ Completed agenda ___ ___ ___ satisfactorily I participated___ ___ ___ Everyone participated___ ___ ___ I enjoyed ___ ___ ___ Leadership functions ___ ___ ___ were distributed

ROLES: Check your own and circle those your observed in others.

Positive Roles Negative Roles Initiating Gave/asked examples Sidetrack to own area Asked for information Timekeeping Interrupted others Gave information Encouraging Monopolized discussion Asked for reactions Tension release Put-down Gave reactions Useful pause Irrelevant stories, etc. Restated point Summarized discussion Apologizing Asked for summary Withdrawal Failure to listen

Grading

Instructors and students often have questions and concerns about how to grade cooperative efforts. Instructors should realize that groups that work together can be much like teams in the workforce and like these teams can be evaluated on the out- comes of the group. This means that all members of a team can earn the same grade. This does not mean that every grade should be given to the team as a whole. Many of the exercises in the modules are meant to be done individually and should be graded likewise. Students may be apprehensive about grading if they have had previous bad experi- ences with group work, where positive interdependence and individual accountability

were not built into the activity. If an explicit method of telling students how grades will be awarded is used, these difficulties can easily be overcome. When students are confident about how they will be graded, they will work toward achieving a high standard. In exercises that stress positive group interdependence, the students are given the same grade as all of the other students in the group, so each student's work can raise or lower the grade of the entire group. This increases the likelihood that students will encourage each other to achieve a high standard in order to keep a high group grade. In the module, Water Treatment: How Can We Purify Our Water? , Session 6 is a laboratory experiment where students work in groups to develop a water treatment plan. In the laboratory each student of the group works on optimizing one aspect of the treatment. At the end of the experiment they are asked to answer questions that require input from each member of the group. These answers are turned in by the group, and the entire group receives one grade on this part of the assignment. Some instructors choose to increase individual accountability by grading individuals on related assignments while other instructors grade on the visible group participation. In the debate project in the module, Would You Like Fries With That? The Fuss about Fat in Our Diet , described in the Positive Group Interdependence and Individual Account- ability section, each student is responsible for turning in an individual debate brief. In addition, he is required to write an individual essay as part of his individual grade. This grading reinforces the responsibility of the student and increases the student's inde- pendent accountability. One problem that has been encountered with teaching modules is known as the "paper tsunami." If students are actively participating in each class, they could turn something in at the end of each class period. Processing this much paper, even if it is not all carefully graded, quickly becomes untenable. Instructors need to decide ahead of time what assignments will be turned in.

Forming Groups

Groups are the core of cooperative learning. Group members depend on each other to reach objectives and improve their interpersonal skills. The group is the framework that allows easy transition into teaching and learning techniques such as think-pair-share, jigsaw, laboratory work, and group discussions.

Group Size Many questions arise as to how many students should be in a group. There are many factors that affect the optimal size of the groups. One factor is the level of interpersonal skills used effectively by the students. A small group, 2-3 students, has few interpersonal interactions and is better for students who are beginning to build their skills. Large groups, those of 7-8 students, have many interactions and therefore do not work well until the students have built their skill to this level. Another factor is the time available; the less time available the smaller the group should be. A final factor is the number of material sets available. Laboratory equipment, for example, may limit the number of groups in the class. Groups of four seem to be optimal for work that needs a variety of personal re- sources without overburdening students who have trouble with interpersonal skills. Groups of four are easy to structure when all four students sit around a table, or when a pair of students turns around to another pair in a lecture hall. Smaller groups work well for short in-class exercises that take a minimal level of interpersonal skills. Three students sitting in a row can work together as long as there is not a feeling of two against