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AP Human Geography Notes
General Geography:
US road map is not a thematic map Every meridian is the same length and has the same beginning and end According to environmental determinism, the physical environment causes social development Highest density: most in numbers Highest concentration: closest together Cloropleth map uses shading Five Themes of Geography:
- Location: Relative location Absolute location
- Place: Human Characteristics Physical Characteristics
- Human-Environmental Interaction: Humans adapt to the environment Humans modify the environment Humans depend on the environment
- Movement People Goods Ideas
- Regions Formal (uniform) Functional (nodal) Vernacular (perceptual) Culture: Customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a group of people in tradition Hearth: Where an idea originates Acculturation: The spread of cultural traits from one society to another Globalization of Culture: Globalization due to interchanging beliefs and customs Globalization of Economy: Globalization due to business Reference Maps: Regular maps showing cities, boundaries, mountains, or roads Thematic Maps: Maps highlighting a particular feature or a single variable such as temperature, city, size, or acreage in potatoes (Gives extra information) Isoline Maps: Show lines that connect points of equal value; Isolines are on topographic maps Choropleth Maps: Show the level of some variable within predefined regions, such as counties, states, or countries Dot Maps: Use a dot to represent the occurrence of some phenomenon in order to depict variation in density in a given area Cartograms: Maps that have distorted population Resolution: The amount of details or depth of a map
Scale: Generally, the relationship between the portion of Earth being studied and Earth as a whole, specifically the relationship between the size of an object on a map and the size of the actual feature on Earth’s surface The three main types of scales are ratio (fraction) scales, bar scales, and written scales Small Scale: Depicts a large area (such as the state of Arizona) but with less detail Large Scale: Depicts a small area (such as downtown Phoenix) with great detail Cartography: The science of making maps Projection: The system used to transfer locations from Earth’s surface to a flat map The most common type is the Robinson Projection However, maps depicting the entire world can distort shape, distance, relative size, and direction Toponym: The name given to a portion of Earth’s surface Has to be a natural feature Site: The physical character of a place Situation: The location of a place relative to other places (relative location) Meridian: An arc drawn on a map between the North and South poles (longitude) The two main meridians are the Prime Meridian and the International Date Line Parallel: A circle drawn around the globe parallel to the equator and at right angles to the meridians (latitude) Time Zones: There are four major time zones in the United States (Eastern, Central, Mountain, and Pacific). The time zones are based on Greenwich, England because at the time England was the most powerful country. There is a new time zone ever 15 degrees longitude. One degree longitude is 69 miles, so there is a new time zone every 1,035 miles. If you go east you go forwards in time. If you go west you go back in time. Greenwich Mean Time: The time in that time zone encompassing the prime meridian, or zero degrees longitude. International Date Line: An arc that for the most part follows 180 degrees longitude, although it deviates in several places to avoid dividing land areas. When you cross the International Date Line heading east (toward America), the clock moves back 24 hours, or one entire day. When you go west (toward Asia), the calendar moves ahead one day. Spatial Association: The distribution of one phenomenon that is related to another phenomenon. (The reason two things are placed where they are – if they’re related they will probably be close) Spatial Distribution: The arrangement of phenomenon across the Earth’s surface Environmental Determinism: A nineteenth- and early twentieth- century approach to the study of geography that argued that the general laws sought by human geographers could be found in the physical sciences. Geography was therefore the study of how the physical environment caused human activities. (States the physical terrain of the world dictates how the humans survive). Possibilism: The theory that the physical environment may set limits on human actions, but people have the ability to adjust to the physical environment and choose a course of action from many alternatives. (States people can overcome the physical problems/features – humans conquer land instead of land conquering humans). Distribution: The arrangement of something across Earth’s surface Density: The frequency with which something exists within a given unit of area. Density does not tell you where something is, just strictly numbers Arithmetic Density: The total number of people divided by the total land area Physiological Density: The total number of people divided by all arable land (farmland) Agricultural Density: The total number of farmers (and family) divided by all arable land
Concentration: The spread of something over a given area Clustered – close together Dispersed – far apart Pattern: The arrangement of objects in space Culture: Customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a group of people in tradition Hearth: Where an idea originates Acculturation: The spread of cultural traits from one society to another Diffusion: The spreading of a feature or trend from one place to another. Relocation – spreading through physical movement. Expansion – Spreading in a snowballing process Contagious – rapid widespread diffusion of a characteristic throughout the population – example - influenza Hierarchical - The spread from authority or power to other people – example – political leaders or hip hop music Stimulus – the spread of an underlying principal though the characteristic itself might diffuse – example – principals from Apple computer though the company diffused. Globalization of Culture: Globalization due to interchanging beliefs and customs Globalization of Economy: Globalization due to business Environmental Determinism: Physical environment dictates the social environment Possibilism: Humans have the ability to adjust to the environment
Population:
Demography: The study of human populations Over Population: The definition of over population is having too many people and to little resources Carrying Capacity: The largest number of people that the environment of a particular area can support Doubling Time: The time it takes for a population to double Four most over populated regions/Sparsely populated regions in the world (Over populated): East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Western Europe East Asia: One fifth of the world’s people live in east Asia. The region borders the pacific ocean. East Asia includes: eastern China, Japan, the Korean Peninsula, and Taiwan. South Asia: Another one fifth of the world’s population lives in south Asia. South Asia includes: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. Southeast Asia: The world’s third largest population cluster is in southeast Asia. A half billion people live in southeast Asia. The islands are: Indonesia (Java, Sumatra, Borneo), Papua New Guinea, and the Philippines. Western Europe: World’s fourth largest population cluster. Contains one ninth of the world’s population. Most of Europe’s people live in cities. This region ranges from Monaco to Russia.
Sparsely Populated Regions: Dry Lands- When an area is dry for farming not many people want to live there. These areas cover about 20% of the earth’s land surface. The largest desert region is the Sahara. Deserts lack sufficient water to grow crops to feed many people. Wet Lands- Wet lands are lands that receive high levels of precipitation. These areas are unfavorable for human life. A combination of rain and heat depletes nutrients from the soil which prevents growing crops. Cold lands- Cold lands are areas that are covered with ice or have permanently frozen ground. These regions have less precipitation than some deserts. These polar regions are unsuitable for crops and animals. High lands- Few people live at high elevations. The highest mountains in the world are steep, snowy, and sparsely settled. Some people prefer to live at higher elevations if the temperature and precipitation are uncomfortable at lower elevations. Population Increase: Doubling time- The number of years needed to double a population. Total fertility rate- The average number of children a woman will have during her childbearing years. Infant mortality rate- The annual number of deaths of infants under one year old. Life expectancy measures the number of years a newborn will be expected to live. The current estimated world human population is 6,379,157,361. This figure is extremely precise, however, since there is no complete database on the world's population, and humans are constantly being born (at the rate of about 3 per second) and dying. However, it is clear that the world's population continues to grow, in other words, more people are being born than people dying. Causes of Population Increase: Crude birth rate (CBR)- The total number of live births in a year for every 1,000 people alive in the society. Ex: a (CBR) of 20 means that for every 1,000 people in a country, 20 babies are born over a one year period. Crude death rate (CDR)- total number of deaths in a year for every 1,000 people alive in the society. The annual number of deaths per 1,000 population. Natural increase rate (NIR)- the percentage by which a population grows in a year. To compute you subtract CBR from CDR. Natural Increase: Natural- means a country’s growth rate excludes migration. About 80 million people are added to the world’s population each year. The historic high was in 1989 with 87 million. The number of people added each year has dropped slower than the NIR because the population base is much higher now than in the past. Fertility: TFR total fertility rate- the average number of children a woman will have throughout her childbearing years (15-49). Mortality: Two useful measures of mortality in addition to the crude death rate already discussed are the infant mortality rate and life expectancy. Infant mortality rate (IMR)- the annual number of deaths of infants under one year of age, compared with total live births. Life expectancy- the average number of years a newborn infant can expect to live at current mortality levels. Population Pyramid: A bar graph representing the distribution of population by age and sex. Population pyramids can be used to demonstrate the demographics of a certain area, and can be used as an indication of the development of a certain area The Demographic Transition: There are four stages to the demographic transition: Stage 1-: Low Growth Stage 2: High Growth Stage 3: Moderate Growth Stage 4: Low Growth All countries are in one stage or another of the demographic transition. Once a country has entered a stage, it cannot go back down to a previous stage.
Stage 5: Currently no Stage 5 Experts suggesting that there will be in the near future Characterized by a negative population growth This will first occur in Western Europe and make its way through most MDCs. Malthus Theory: States that the world will get wiped out by over population, starvation, and disease (mainly the ratio of people to food). Thomas Malthus stated this in 1798 in his book- An Essay on the Principle of Population. Today: 1 person, 1 unit of food 25 years from now: 2 people, 2 units of food 50 years from now: 4 persons, 3 units of food 75 years from now: 8 people, 4 units of food 100 years from now: 16 people, 5 units of food Back in the 17 & 1800s, they didn’t have the same farming technology and methods we have today. There wasn’t as much medicine to cure diseases. Lester Brown a Stanford University biologist, said Malthus made critical points but missed a couple important points, gains in land productivity, and the preference for eating “higher up the food chain”. Example- In Sub-Saharan Africa, drought, poverty, and disease (mainly AIDS) are reducing life expectancy. The population is bigger than the amount of arable land-which causes more than half of the children to be under-nourished or mal- nourished. Neo-Malthusians: Study Malthus’ theory They point out that the amount of farmland is decreasing while the population is increasing. Global Warming could interfere with food production. Both extensification and intensification of agriculture will lead to land degradation. Malthus’s Critics: Many geographers believe Malthus’ theory is very pessimistic because they based on a belief that the world’s supply is fixed not expanding. Malthus did not foresee the advancement in technology that would help mankind survive. Census- A complete enumeration of a population. Crude Birth Rate- The total number of live births in a year for every 1,000 people alive in the society. Crude Death Rate- The total number of deaths in a year fro every 1,000 people alive in the society. Demographic Transition- The process of change in a society’s population from a condition of high crude birth and death rates and low rate of natural increase to a condition of low crude birth and death rates, low rate of natural increase, and a higher total population. Demography- The scientific study of population characteristics. Dependency Ratio- The number of people under the age of 15 and over age 64, compared to the number of people active in the labor force. Doubling Time- The number of years needed to double a population, assuming a constant rate of natural increase. Epidemiologic Transition- Distinctive causes of death in each stage of the demographic transition. Epidemiology- Branch of medical science concerned with the incidence, distribution, and control of diseases that affect large numbers of people. Ecumene- The portion of Earth’s surface occupied by permanent human settlement. Industrial Revolution- A series of improvements in industrial technology that transformed the process of manufacturing goods.
Infant Mortality Rate- The total number of deaths in a year among infants under one year old for every 1,000 live births in a society. Life Expectancy- The average number of years an individual can be expected to live, given current social, economic, and medical conditions. Life expectancy at birth is the average number of years a newborn infant can expect to live. Medical Revolution- Medical technology invented in Europe and North America that is diffused to the poorer countries of Latin America, Asia, and Africa. Improved medical practices have eliminated many of the traditional causes of death in poorer countries and enabled more people to live longer and healthier lives. Natural Increase Rate- The percentage growth of a population in a year, computed as the crude birth rate minus the crude death rate. Overpopulation- The number of people in an area exceeds the capacity of the environment to support life at a decent standard of living. Pandemic- Disease that occurs over a wide geographic area and affects a very high proportion of the population. Population Pyramid- A bar graph representing the distribution of population by age and sex. Sex Ratio- The number of males per 100 females in the population. Total Fertility Rate- The average number of children a woman will have throughout her childbearing years. Zero Population Growth- A decline of the total fertility rate to the point where the natural increase rate equals zero.
Migration:
Migration: Form of relocation diffusion involving permanent move to a new location Mobility: All types of movement from one location to another Circulation: Constant, short term, repetitive movements by an individual Emigration: Migration away from country Immigration: Migration into a country Net Migration: The difference between the number of immigrants and the number of emigrants Net In-Migration & Net Out-Migration Counterurbanization: Net migration from urban to rural areas in MDCs Reasons For Migration: Usually people migrate for economic reasons Although not as frequently, cultural and environmental reasons also induce migration Push factor: when people are forced out of an area Ex: Hurricane Katrina destroyed many peoples’ houses, so they were forced to move somewhere else. Pull factor: when people desire to move into a new location Ex: Better job opening in a new area, a good place to retire. Usually promises a better situation than the present one. Economic Push and Pull Factors: Pull- People emigrate to places with better job opportunities. They will also emigrate because of better natural resources. Metal and coal deposits might attract miners. A brand new industry or store could attract technicians, scientists, engineers, or other workers. Push- When a industry goes bankrupt, workers will lose their jobs and might be forced to move to a different area because of a job opportunity. Environmental Push and Pull Factors: Pull- people are attracted to areas with warm climates, mountainsides, and seasides. Push- certain physical conditions cause people to move to different areas like too much or too little water in an area can force people to move. Also an area that is storm prone can force people to migrate.
- Also, transportation is a problem with immigration. It is difficult to meet all the requirements to be able to travel in any way to a new country.
- Oceans and lakes are an obstacle in migration because people are unable to cross the bodies of water.
- Motor vehicles and airplanes are the easiest way to go from one place to another, but it is also the hardest requirements to meet when traveling. Countries Attitudes Towards New Immigrants
- Making it to the desired country isn’t always the end of the complications, once the immigrants reach the country, the citizens may dislike the new people because of cultural differences.
- The guest workers are not always excepted and can be treated unfairly. Vietnam: The long Vietnam War ended in 1975 when Communist-controlled North Vietnam captured South Vietnam’s capital city of Saigon. The US evacuated from Saigon several thousand people who had been closely identified with the American position during the war and who were therefore vulnerable to persecution after the Communist victory. A second surge of Vietnamese boat people began in the late 1980s. Their most popular destinations were Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Thailand. 800,000 Vietnamese have reached the US since the end of the Vietnam War, another 1 million in other countries.
Pop & Folk Culture:
Popular Culture: Culture found in a large, heterogeneous society that shares certain habits despite differences in other personal characteristics Folk Culture: Culture traditionally practiced by a small, homogeneous, rural group living in relative isolation from other groups Origin of Folk Cultures: Folk customs often have anonymous hearths, originating from anonymous sources, at unknown dates, through unidentified originators Origin of Pop Cultures: Popular culture is most often a product of the economically more developed countries, especially in North America, Western Europe, and Japan Transition from Folk to Pop Culture: Most of the world turns from folk to pop culture. Folk culture diffuses slowly to other locations through the process of migration. Popular culture diffuses rapidly across Earth to locations with a variety of physical conditions. Taboo: A restriction on behavior imposed by social custom Diffusion Associated With Pop Culture: Rapid diffusion depends on a group of people having a sufficiently high level of economic development to acquire the material possessions associated with popular culture
Language:
Language Family: A collection of languages related to each other through a common ancestor long before recorded history Language Branch: A collection of languages related through a common ancestor that existed several thousand years ago. Differences are not as extensive or as old as with language families, and archaeological evidence can confirm that the branches derived from the same family. Language Group: A collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and display relatively few differences in grammar and vocabulary Dialect: A regional variety of a language distinguished by vocabulary, spelling, and pronunciation Old English Speakers: West Germanic invaders from Jutland (Denmark) known as the Anglos, Saxons, and Jutes began populating the British Isles in the 5th^ and 6th^ centuries AD Pushed the native Celtic speaking people into Scotland, Whales, and Ireland Creolized Language: A language that results from the mixing of a colonizer’s language with the indigenous language of the people being dominated French Creole in Haiti Papiamento (Creolized Spanish) in Netherlands Antilles (West Indies) Portuguese Creole in the Cape Verde Islands off the African Coast
Indo-European Language Family: The world’s most extensively spoken language family by a wide margin Nearly 3 billion people speak an Indo-European language as their first language Eight Branches: Indo-Iranian Romance Germanic Balto-Slavic Albanian Armenian Greek Celtic
10 most Spoken Languages in the World:
Position Language Family Script Used Speakers (Millions) Where Spoken (Major) 1 Mandarin Sino-Tibetan Chinese Characters 885 China, Malaysia, Taiwan 2 English Indo-European Latin 332 USA, UK, Australia, Canada, New Zealand 3 Spanish Indo-European Latin 322 South America, Central America, Spain 4 Arabic Afro-Asiatic Arabic 235 ME, Arabia, North Africa 5 Bengali Indo-European Bengali 189 Bangladesh, Eastern India 6 Hindi Indo-European Devanagari 182 North and Central India 7 Portuguese Indo-European Latin 170 Brazil, Portugal, Southern Africa 8 Russian Indo-European Cyrillic 170 Russia, Central Asia 9 Japanese Altaic Chinese Characters and 2 Japanese Alphabets 125 Japan 10 German Indo-European Latin 98 Germany, Austria, Central Europe Ideograms: The system of writing used in China and other East Asian countries in which each symbol represents an idea or a concept rather than a specific sound, as is the case with letters in English
Religion:
Religion, Culture, and Physical Environment People care deeply about their religion and draw from religion their core values and beliefs, an essential element of the definition of culture. Religious values are important in understanding not only how people identify themselves, as was the case with language, but also the meaningful ways that they organize the landscape. Like language, migrants take their religion with them to new locations, but although migrants typically learn the language of the new location, they retain their religion. Religion Hierarchy: A hierarchical religion has a well-defined geographic structure and organizes territory into local administrative units (has “rankings” amongst the religion). A good example is Roman Catholicism (Pope, Cardinals, Bishops). Universalizing Religion: A religion that attempts to appeal to all people, not just those living in a particular location 3 Big – Christianity, Islam, Buddhism Christianity: Origin – Israel
African American – (13%) Southeast Hispanic American – (13%) Southwest Asian American – (4%) West American Indian (Native American) – (1%) Southwest and Plains States Clustering of Ethnicities: Within a country, clustering of ethnicities can occur on two scales. Ethnic groups may live in particular regions of the country, and they may live in particular neighborhoods within cities. Sharecropper: A person who works fields rented from a landowner and pays the rent and repays loans by turning over to the landowner a share of the crops Ghettos: When the African American immigrants reached the big cities, they clustered in the one or two neighborhoods where the small numbers who had arrived in the 19th^ century were already living. These areas became known as ghettos. The ghettos today have been through expansion. Ethnicity and Race: Race is biological. An example would be skin color, but its not just skin color. Ethnicity is the cultural aspect/category. An example would be a hearth. Separate But Equal Doctrine: The Separate But Equal Doctrine occurred in 1896. It allowed segregation of Blacks, Jews, and Roman Catholics. “White Flight”: “White Flight” comes from the Brown vs. Board of Education doctrine in 1954, which eliminated segregation. ‘White Flight” is when whites left their homes to where they knew would be a dominate white area because they were scared of the blacks. South Africa Apartheid: Apartheid is the physical separation of different races into different areas. The white-dominated government of South Africa repealed the apartheid laws in 1991. In 1994, Nelson Mandela became president of South Africa. South Africa the country- Black- 76% White- 13% Asian- 3% Mixed- 13% Each with different legal status Nationality/Nationalism: Nationality is identity with a group of people that share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular place as a result of being born there. Nationalism is loyalty and devotion to a particular nationality. Nation-State: A state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular ethnicity that has been transformed into a nationality Have by far one dominate ethnicity/nationality – 1 country, 1 ethnicity Self Determinism (Separatism): The concept that ethnicities have the right to govern themselves Quebec (Province in Canada) – early 1980s strong French Australia Israel/Palestine Native Americans Multi-Ethnic States/Multi-National States: Multi-Ethnic state – state that contains more than one ethnicity Don’t necessarily try to appeal to every ethnicity – sometimes happy, sometimes not Belgium = (Dutch = Flemish = North + French = Walloons = South) Multi-National state – state that contains two or more ethnic groups with traditions of self-determination that agree to coexist peacefully by recognizing each other as distinct nationalities Try to appeal to every nationality/ethnicity (by giving them jobs) – get along just fine United Kingdom = England + Scotland + Whales + N. Ireland
Block Busting: Real estate agents telling people that blacks or Indians were going to move next door to them so they could buy the peoples’ house for very cheap and sell it for double. Balkanization: States/countries breaking down through ethnic conflict – constant conflict Balkanized: A geographic area that can’t be stable/happy because there are too many ethnicities and too much ugly history between them. Servia Boznia Balkan Peninsula
Political Geography:
Colonies, Early European States, and Ancient and Medieval States: A colony is a territory that is legally tied to a sovereign state rather than being completely independent. The modern movement to divide the world into states originated in Europe. Political unity in the ancient world reached its height with the establishment of the Roman Empire, which controlled most of Europe, North Africa, and Southwest Asia. The European portion of the Roman Empire was fragmented into a large number of estates owned by competing kings, dukes, barons, and other nobles. The development of states can be traced to the ancient Middle East, in an area known as the Fertile crescent. The first states to evolve in Mesopotamia were known as city-states – sovereign states that comprise a town and the surrounding countryside. Modern Colonies: Today only a handful of colonies remain. Nearly all are islands in the Pacific Ocean or Caribbean Sea State Shapes: Compact State- a state in which the distance form the center to any boundary does not vary significantly Fragmented State- a state that includes several discontinuous pieces of territory Elongated State- a state with a long, narrow shape Prorupted State- an otherwise compact state with a large projecting extension Perforated State- a state that completely surrounds another one Boundaries: Can see on a map: Physical- natural boundaries (oceans, rivers, mountains) Geometric- main official lines Can’t see on a map: Culture Religious Language Federal State: An internal organization of a state that allocates most powers to units of local government (have a say so) Centripetal forces Example- US Unitary State: An internal organization of a state that places most power in the hands of central government officials (not necessarily bad, but no say so- only government) Centrifugal forces Example- UK United Nations: A cooperation under the political category; Deals with military, economic, agricultural, etc. European Union: A cooperation under the economic category Promotes development through economic cooperation (free trade, Euro, subsidizing) Sovereignty: Ability of a state to govern its territory free from control of its internal affairs by other states
Development:
Ethiopia (horn of Africa)- Before embracing full scale farming Ethiopians were mainly hunters and gatherers. They began to cultivate crops which eventually led to farming. When farming became more dependable and common irrigation was exploited. Nile Valley- the Nile Valley civilization developed along the banks of the Nile River in Egypt. Its long narrow floodplain provided ideal conditions for settlement and development of stable communities. The annual flooding of the river (which was viewed as a gift from the gods) deposited nutrient rich silt over the land. The silt made the soil excellent for growing wheat flax and other crops. It is believed that many nomadic hunters settled the land. Around 5500BC hunting was mostly replaced by domesticating animals such as cattle, sheep, pigs, and goats, as well as growing cereal grains. China- By 5000 BC there were many agricultural communities spread throughout what is now China. There were many villages along rivers such as the Great Yellow River (Huang He). They hunted deer and other game, fished, and gathered food. They also raised domestic dogs, pigs, and chickens. With the flooding of rivers irrigation was an important thing to master. The Chinese also farmed rice. Southeast Asia- Prior to agriculture, hunting and gathering sufficed to proved food in Southeast Asia. It was here that the chicken and pig were domesticated and rice was farmed. Agricultural technology was exploited when population increased to the point that systematic intensive farming was necessary for survival. River plains and delta regions helped the process of agriculture and trade. Mesoamerica- From 8000 – 2000 the hunter gatherers in the region began to cultivate wild plants. This probably began so they would have food to rely on if hunting became bad or in the event of a drought. As time went on the cultivated plant foods became increasingly important to the people of Mesoamerica. The plants they grew were more reliable. Mesoamerica eventually went into a subsistence pattern based on the cultivation of plants. Probably the most important Mesoamerican agriculture is maize. Subsistence Agriculture : Self-sufficient, small in scale, low technology, Food production for local consumption- not for trade or sale Some are confined to small fields- very likely they do not own the soil they till Small fields-share cropper, low end money pull for agriculture Can promote cohesiveness within society, share land, food surpluses, personal wealth is restricted Cultivators are poor but free Subsistence farming is growing enough food for one person and their family. Not to make a profit or sell. Lots of subsistence farms grow things like tomatoes, corn, potatoes, cucumbers, and spinach. Some subsistence farms also have livestock. Plantation Farming: Regional, bigger scale, but not yet commercial Plantation farming is on a bigger scale than subsistence, but not yet commercial. These farms are for profit. Many plantations farm rubber, pine, spruce, and eucalyptus trees, oil palm, cotton, tea, and tobacco. Some are orchards, in which they would grow fruit, (that grow on trees). Shifting Cultivation: A form of subsistence agriculture in which people shift activity from one field to another; each field is used for crops for a relatively few years and left fallow for a relatively long period Cultivation where tropical forests are removed by cutting and burning, ash contributes to soil fertility Clearings are usually abandoned after a few years for newly cleared land (150-200 million people) Intensive Subsistence Agriculture: A form of subsistence agriculture in which farmers must expend a relatively large amount of effort to produce the maximum feasible yield from a parcel of land Pastoral Nomadism: A form of subsistence agriculture based on herding domesticated animals They live in dry climates Ranching: A form of commercial agriculture in which livestock graze over an extensive area Semi-arid or arid land MDC’s Transhumance: The seasonal migration of livestock between mountains and lowland pastures Commercial Farming:
Aka agribusiness- a system of economic and political relationships that organize food production from the development of the genetic makeup of the seeds to the retailing and consumption of the agricultural product- not just farming also development, harvesting, canning, and selling of crops- is an example of a company that incorporates primary, secondary, and tertiary job sectors Mass profit, almost all diary products are from commercial farming Ex. Mayfield These farms are made for mass profit. They use genetically modified plants, and sometimes animals. They grow the worlds largest crops like wheat, rice , corn, and pretty much everything you find in Kroger. They also raise animals like cows, pigs, and chickens. Almost all dairy products come from a commercial farm. The Von Thunen Model: Agricultural land use 1826 The black dot represents a city 1 (white)- dairy and market gardening 2 (green)- forest for fuel 3 (yellow)- grains and field crops 4 (red)- ranching Dark green=wilderness where agriculture is not profitable Crop Rotation: The practice of rotating use of different fields from crop to crop each year, to avoid exhausting the soil Slash-and-burn Agriculture: Another name for shifting cultivation, so named because fields are cleared by slashing the vegetation and burning the debris Desertification: Degradation of land, especially in semiarid areas, primarily because of human actions like excessive crop planting, animal grazing, and tree cutting 1 st^ Agricultural Revolution: 12,000 yrs ago, Neolithic era Fertile Crescent, China, North Africa, Southeast Asia, and Latin America Accompanied by a modest population explosion Domestication- animals (about 40 species today) occurred after people became more sedentary 2 nd^ Agricultural Revolution: 1871- Resulted from the Industrial Revolution- produced new technology that helped with the agricultural progress a lot Ex. tractor, cotton gin 3 rd^ Agricultural Revolution: Aka Green Revolution- benefiting LDC’s by introduction and production of fertilizers and pesticides into LDC’s 1960 to present Based on higher yielding strains using genetic engineering Double Cropping: Harvesting twice a year from the same field
Industry:
The Industrial Revolution: Started in the north of the UK around 1750 A series of improvements in industrial technology that transformed the process of manufacturing goods Transformed how goods are produced for society and the way people obtain food, clothing, and shelter World’s Largest Industrial Production Regions: Approximately ¾ of the world’s industrial production is concentrated in four regions: eastern North America, northwestern Europe, Eastern Europe, and East Asia. Industries in US: New England, Middle Atlantic, Mohawk Valley, Pittsburgh-Lake Erie, Western Great Lakes Bulk-Reducing Industry: An industry in which the final product weighs less or comprises a lower volume than the inputs Example- Copper concentration (pennies)
Central Business District (CBD): Where all big businesses take place in a city Node Nuclei Edge City: Little mini cities on the outskirts that are like the big cities Lots of edge cities in Atlanta Ex. Roswell and Alpharetta – has most of the services as in big cities A.K.A. “suitcase cities” Typically a place without a high residence area Sandy Springs- used to be part of Atlanta, and then became its own official city To become an edge city, the city has to be newly developed and business oriented- more jobs than homes Ghettoization: Started in Europe Legal restriction of people to certain areas Used to be legalized but not anymore Ghettos refer to areas where populations of mixed income are confined to a certain area even though they might have the means and desire to move Can be economic or social “ghettos” Industrialization and Urbanization: The growing of industry and the growing of population and population density of a city One promotes the other The Industrial Revolution promoted Urbanization Megalopolis: A Greek word meaning great city D.C. Geographer Jean Gottmann named the region in the northeastern US- large metropolitan areas so close together that they now form one continuous urban complex, extending from north of Boston to south of Washington- Megalopolis Primate Cities: Having more than twice the population of the second largest city Center of culture for country Draws citizens because they feel they have to be apart of the city to be successful Most likely to become capital (ex. Paris, France) Not every country has a primate city Can have primate cities on large and small scales California’s primate city is Los Angeles America lacks a primate city Rank Size Rule: 2 nd^ largest city is ½ of 1st 3 rd^ largest city is 1/3^ of 1st 4 th^ largest city is ¼ of 1st World Cities: Have a large population density because of technology high rise They are cities that have great influence on the whole world They become a world city because they are in the center of the global economic system Highest Tier of World Cities- London, Tokyo, and New York (world’s business capital) 2 nd^ Tier- Chicago, Washington and Los Angeles Megacities: Over 10 million people Experience a sudden rise in population where the infrastructure can’t support the population for a time For the most part Megacities are in LDC’s because the people there are forced to go to urban areas to find work
Central Place Theory: Walter Christaller created the central place theory to explain the size and spacing of cities that specialize in selling goods and services The theory consisted of two basic concepts:
- Threshold- the minimum market
- Range- the maximum distance- the amount of distance a person is willing to drive to the threshold Concentric Zone Model: A general model that cities are based upon that Burgess developed in 1925 The plan of a city (urban planner) may be based on the concentric zone model Relates the distance to the city to how wealthy a family is The wealthier you are the bigger land you have and the farther away from the city you are 6 Concentric Zones: Zone 1- CBD Zone 2- immediately adjacent to CBD (factories and manufacturing plants- where things are produced without much pollution- not nasty) Zone 3- contains poorest segments of the urban population, low income housing areas, low income people have factory jobs and do not use car for transportation Zone 4- working class Zone 5- middle class, not struggling, higher quality housing Zone 6- high class, expensive housing The zones expand- build out not up The concentric zone model has two main problems: outdated and only applies to America Sector Model: Has arms that extend from the CBD instead of circles CBD still in center of city Lower income still near manufacturing areas Transportation and manufacturing most likely along an “arm” Multiple Nuclei Model: Attributes: Differential Accessibility- people don’t just go to the same CBD all the time- they go to different places Land Use Compatibility- related businesses are close together, centripetal forces Land Use Incompatibly- conflicting businesses are sent apart from each other, centrifugal forces Location Suitability- suitable for certain activities Transportation; 40 percent of all trips made into or out of a CBD occur during four hours of the day- two in the morning and two in the afternoon In larger cities, public transportation is better than motor vehicles- cheaper, less polluting, and more energy-efficient Americans prefer to commute by car Infrastructure: What makes a city work or operate Example- electricity, sewers, road ways Suburbanization: The growth of suburbs was constrained by transportation problems The invention of the railroad in the 19th^ century enabled people to live in suburbs and work in the central city Many so-called streetcar suburbs built in the 19th^ century still exist and retain unique visual identities Hinterland: Same as range in the central place theory Area around the city that the city serves The farthest distance a city is willing to serve
