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➔ What motivates us to
think and act the way we
do?
➔ Why do some people
respond to stress in a
healthier way than others?
➔ Why don’t psychologists
agree?
➔ 7.1 Theories of Motivation
➔ 7.2 Specific Topics in
Motivation
➔ 7.3 Theories of Emotion
➔ 7.4 Stress and Coping
➔ 7.5 Introduction to
Personality
➔ 7.6 Psychoanalytic
Theories of Personality
➔ 7.7 Behaviorism and Social
Cognitive Theories of
Personality
➔ 7.8 Humanistic Theories of
Personality
➔ 7.9 Trait Theories of
Personality
➔ 7.10 Measuring Personality
Psychologists use theory to categorize and explain different personalities. These
explanations have been influenced by the various branches of psychology. Some
psychologists study what motivates us and/or our emotional responses to
experiences to understand our individual differences. Other psychologists seek to
understand personality, including why different personalities exist, how they are
developed, and if and how they change. Originating from the psychodynamic
perspective, the study of personality involves consideration of behavior and mental
processes and how they interact to produce an individual’s personality. A full
explanation of personality also involves incorporating humanistic and
social-cognitive perspectives from earlier units.
William James Developed the James-Lange theory of emotion, along with Carl Lange, which proposes that emotions occur because of physiological reactions to events
Alfred Kinsey Known for his systematic, scientific study of sexual behavior, developed Kinsey Scale to describe sexual orientation
Abraham Maslow developed a theory of motivation called the hierarchy of needs
Psychology would not be the science that it is today without the contributions of many talented men and women
You can expect about 10% of items in previous AP Psychology exams to refer to specific names from either the history of psychology or current researchers
You should connect the name with the concept/experiment that they contributed to psychology
Stanley Schachter developed the two-factor theory of emotion
Hans Selye developed the general adaptation syndrome model
Richard Lazarus known for his contribution to the field of observational learning, including his famous Bobo doll experiment on aggression
Alfred Adler psychoanalyst who disagreed with Freud over the importance of sexual drives in personality, originated concept of inferiority complex
Joseph LeDoux believed some of our emotional reactions involve no deliberate thinking and cognition is not always necessary for emotion
Albert Bandura social cognitive theorist who proposed reciprocal determinism, idea that thoughts, beliefs, and environment all interact with and change each other
Paul Ekman Universal emotional expressions, "facial language" believed everyone recognized 7 basic emotions
Psychodynamic Emphasizes behavior is determined by your past experiences that are left in the unconscious mind and childhood experiences
Paul Costa & Robert McCrae expanded and reorganized the PEN trait model into the big Five or OCEAN model of personality traits
Sigmund Freud founder of psychoanalysis who developed the structural model, which states that the mind is made up of the id, ego, and superego Carl Jung psychoanalyst who stated that the unconscious mind can be divided into the personal and collective conscious, the latter of which contains archetypes
Carl Rogers believes free-will will lead to self actualization. As long as you have one person in your life that will give you unconditional positive regard, you can reach self actualization
Humanistic Human capacity for choice and growth , motivation for people to fulfill their potential
Biological The influence of genetics and brain chemistry ( physical & biological processes)
Biopsychosocial Eclectic (Combining Approach), Links between genetics and environment
● General Adaptation
Syndrome (GAS) Researched by Hans Selye, the three stages of the bodies psychological reaction to stress
- Alarm, Resistance, Exhaustion
● Locus of Control Refers to the extent to which people feel that they have control over the events that influence their lives ● Internal Locus of Control You believe that you have control over what happens ● External Locus of Control Blame outside forces for their circumstances
● Psychoanalytic Theories Sigmund Freud developed theory of personality development ● Id Part of the human personality that is made up of all our inborn biological urges that seeks out immediate gratification (pleasure principle) ● Ego The largely conscious, “executive” part of personality that, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality (reality principle) ● Superego The part of personality that, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations (morality principle)
● Defense mechanisms Freud proposed that the ego protects itself with tactics that reduce or redirect anxiety by distorting reality
Defense Mechanisms ● Repression Acts to keep information out of conscious awareness ● Displacement Involves taking out our frustrations, feelings, and impulses on people or objects that are less threatening ● Projection Involves taking our own unacceptable qualities or feelings and ascribing them to other people ● Regression When confronted by stressful events, people sometimes abandon coping strategies and revert to patterns of behavior used earlier in development ● Denial Functions to protect the ego from things with which the individual cannot cope ● Rationalization Involves explaining an unacceptable behavior or feeling in a rational or logical manner, avoiding the true reasons for the behavior ● Reaction-Formation Reduces anxiety by taking up the opposite feeling, impulse, or behavior
● Carl Jung thought all people shared a collective unconscious. Common collection of images that we have gained together as human beings from our ancestral & evolutionary past ● Alfred Adler People compensate for inferiority complexes based on inadequacies ● Karen Horney feminist perspective to psychoanalytic theory
● Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes ● Rorschach Inkblot Test (Hermann Rorschach) The most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, During the test, participants are shown the inkblots and asked what each one looks like
● Raymond Cattell’s 16 Traits 16 traits are the source of all human personality ● Factor analysis he identified closely related terms and eventually reduced his list to just 16 key personality traits
The Big Five Personality Factors Model of personality traits, many researchers believe that they are five core personality traits ● Openness to Experience, tendency to appreciate new art, ideas, values, feelings and behaviors ● Conscientiousness tendency to be careful, on-time for appointments, to follow rules, and to be hardworking ● Extraversion , tendency to be talkative, sociable, and to enjoy others ● Agreeableness tendency to agree and go along with others rather than to assert one’s own opinions & choices ● Neuroticism tendency to frequently experience negative emotions
● Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory- (MMPI-2) The most widely used and researched clinical assessment tool used by mental health professionals to help diagnose mental health disorders
● Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Self-report inventory designed to identify a person's personality type, strengths, and preferences ● (-) Studies have found that the reliability and validity of the instrument have not been adequately demonstrated
● Social Cognitive Perspective theory that maintains personality both shapes and is shaped by environment
● Reciprocal Determinism idea from the social cognitive perspective that thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and environment all influence each other in determining a person’s actions in a given situation
● Individualistic Culture a culture that places an emphasis on individual goals and personal achievement ● Collectivist Culture a culture that sees people primarily as members of a family or larger social group ● There are unknown unknowns -there are things we do not know we don’t know ( illusion of knowing ). You should not be finding out that you didn’t actually know the material during the test. You should utilize practice questions to identify what you actually know and practice applications of the content, not just re-reading definitions.
Openness to experience. Openness to experience concerns people’s willingness to try to new things, their ability to be vulnerable, and their capability to think outside the box
Conscientiousness. Conscientiousness is a trait that can be described as the tendency to control impulses and act in socially acceptable ways, behaviors that facilitate goal-directed behavior (John & Srivastava, 1999). Conscientious people excel in their ability to delay gratification, work within the rules, and plan and organize effectively
Extroversion. This factor has two familiar ends of its spectrum: extroversion and introversion. It concerns where an individual draws their energy from and how they interact with others. In general, extroverts draw energy from or recharge by interacting with others, while introverts get tired from interacting with others and replenish their energy with solitude
Agreeableness This factor concerns how well people get along with others. While extroversion concerns sources of energy and the pursuit of interactions with others, agreeableness concerns one’s orientation to others. It is a construct that rests on how an individual generally interacts with others
Neuroticism. Neuroticism is not a factor of meanness or incompetence, but one of confidence and being comfortable in one’s own skin. It encompasses one’s emotional stability and general temper
*Personality theories are ways of describing the qualities of
people that make them unique individuals
