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BIO 230 SFSU COMPLETE EXAM PACKAGE
2026 EXAM 1 EXAM 2 PLUS STUDY GUIDE
WITH ACCURATE SOLUTIONS
⩥ What are lacteals? Answer: Specialized lymphatic capillaries that collect fat in the small intestine. ⩥ How much water is lost from plasma to interstitial fluid daily? Answer: 2-4 liters. ⩥ What do lymphatic vessels do? Answer: They pick up lymph from capillaries and pass it through lymph nodes. ⩥ What are lymphatic trunks? Answer: Larger vessels that include jugular, subclavian, intestinal, lumbar, and bronchomediastinal trunks. ⩥ What is the function of lymphoid organs? Answer: To filter pathogens and house various types of leukocytes. ⩥ What are the two main lymphatic ducts? Answer: The right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct.
⩥ What is lymph composed of? Answer: Water, solutes from blood plasma, and cells such as hormones and waste products. ⩥ What is the role of lymph nodes? Answer: To filter lymph and remove pathogens. ⩥ What is the spleen's primary function? Answer: To destroy defective red blood cells, detect and respond to foreign substances, and provide a limited reservoir for blood. ⩥ What is the thymus responsible for? Answer: The maturation of T cells. ⩥ What are the three lines of defense in the immune system? Answer: 1st line: physical barriers; 2nd line: innate immune responses; 3rd line: adaptive immune responses. ⩥ What is innate immunity? Answer: A nonspecific immune response that includes antimicrobial proteins and cells that respond quickly to pathogens. ⩥ What is adaptive immunity? Answer: A specific immune response that targets unique antigens and has memory.
⩥ What is the role of dendritic cells in the immune system? Answer: To activate T cells and initiate adaptive immune responses. ⩥ What are the three main types of tonsils? Answer: Pharyngeal (adenoid), palatine, and lingual tonsils. ⩥ What is the significance of chemotaxis in the immune response? Answer: It attracts immune cells to the site of infection through chemical signals. ⩥ What are pyrogens? Answer: Substances that stimulate fever production. ⩥ What role do complement proteins play in the immune system? Answer: They stimulate many immune responses and are present in the second and third lines of defense. ⩥ How do corticosteroids affect inflammation? Answer: They mimic the actions of cortisol and inhibit the formation of both prostaglandins and leukotrienes. ⩥ What are cytokines? Answer: Proteins that enhance immune responses and are present in the second and third lines of defense.
⩥ What is the complement system? Answer: A group of 30 proteins that circulate in the blood in inactive forms. ⩥ What conditions are corticosteroids generally used for? Answer: Conditions with more severe inflammation or inflammation due primarily to leukotrienes, such as allergy-related inflammation. ⩥ What are the three main pathways of complement activation? Answer: Classical, Lectin, and Alternative pathways. ⩥ What is the classical pathway of complement activation? Answer: It binds to antibodies. ⩥ How is the lectin pathway of complement activation initiated? Answer: It is initiated when lectin binds to carbohydrates on microbes. ⩥ What triggers the alternative pathway of complement activation? Answer: It begins at the cleavage of inactive complement proteins C into C3b. ⩥ What are the functions of activated complement proteins? Answer: They make channels through cell membranes, leading to lysis.
⩥ What is the difference between antibody-mediated immunity and cell- mediated immunity? Answer: Antibody-mediated immunity involves B cells that secrete antibodies, while cell-mediated immunity involves T cells that kill pathogens. ⩥ What is the primary protection of cell-mediated immunity? Answer: It is primarily against intracellular antigens such as viruses, tumors, and some parasites. ⩥ What is the primary protection of humoral (antibody-mediated) immunity? Answer: It is primarily against extracellular antigens such as bacteria, fungi, toxins, and some parasites. ⩥ What is the process of B cell activation? Answer: B cells recognize a specific antigen, secrete antibodies, and proliferate to form plasma and memory cells. ⩥ What are memory B cells? Answer: They are a population of B cells that persist and react rapidly if the same antigen is encountered again. ⩥ What are Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) molecules? Answer: They present parts of foreign antigens to white blood cells, crucial for immune recognition.
⩥ What are the two classes of MHC molecules and their functions? Answer: MHC Class I is found on most nucleated cells and interacts with cytotoxic T cells; MHC Class II is found on antigen-presenting cells and interacts with helper T cells. ⩥ What are the five classes of antibodies? Answer: IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE, and IgD. ⩥ What are the main functions of antibodies? Answer: They agglutinate pathogens, opsonize them for phagocytosis, neutralize toxins, activate complement, and stimulate inflammation. ⩥ What is the primary immune response? Answer: It is the first activation of a B cell that leads to the production of plasma and memory cells. ⩥ What distinguishes the secondary immune response from the primary response? Answer: The secondary response is faster and more robust due to the presence of memory cells. ⩥ What is immunization? Answer: It is the deliberate exposure to an antigen or antibody to stimulate an immune response. ⩥ What are the types of immunity based on exposure? Answer: Active natural immunity, active artificial immunity (vaccination), passive
⩥ What is chemical digestion? Answer: The enzymatic breakdown of food particles into smaller molecules. ⩥ What is the role of saliva in digestion? Answer: Saliva contains enzymes that begin the chemical digestion of food and helps in forming a bolus for swallowing. ⩥ What are the phases of swallowing (deglutition)? Answer: Voluntary phase, pharyngeal phase, and esophageal phase. ⩥ What are the divisions of the stomach? Answer: Cardiac sphincter, fundus, body, pylorus, and pyloric sphincter. ⩥ What types of cells are found in gastric glands? Answer: Mucus cells, parietal cells, chief cells, enterochromaffin-like cells, and G cells. ⩥ What is the length of the esophagus? Answer: Approximately 25 cm (10 in) long. ⩥ What are the main functions of enterocytes in the small intestine? Answer: They produce digestive enzymes, hormones, and mucus.
⩥ What is the length of the duodenum? Answer: About 25 cm (10 in) long. ⩥ What is the role of Brunner's glands in the duodenum? Answer: They produce alkaline mucus. ⩥ What is the length of the jejunum? Answer: Approximately 2.5 meters (7.5 ft) long. ⩥ What is the primary function of the jejunum? Answer: It is the most active site for digestion and absorption. ⩥ What hormone is secreted by somatostatin cells in the jejunum? Answer: Somatostatin, which inhibits gastrin and insulin secretion. ⩥ What phases of digestion occur in the stomach? Answer: Cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase. ⩥ What is the length of the ileum? Answer: About 3.6 meters (10.8 ft) long. ⩥ What structure does the ileum terminate at? Answer: The ileocecal valve.
⩥ What is the function of the pancreas? Answer: It acts as both an endocrine and exocrine gland, producing insulin, glucagon, and digestive enzymes. ⩥ What are the enzymes secreted in pancreatic juice? Answer: Trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase, pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipase, deoxyribonucleases, and ribonucleases. ⩥ What is the role of bile produced by the liver? Answer: To emulsify fat and aid in digestion. ⩥ What is the defecation reflex? Answer: The reflex triggered by the distension of the rectal wall. ⩥ How do gut flora benefit the human body? Answer: They produce vitamin K, finish digestion of carbohydrates, deter harmful bacteria, and stimulate the immune system. ⩥ What is the function of the gastroesophageal sphincter? Answer: It normally remains closed except during swallowing to prevent acid reflux. ⩥ What happens to solids before they enter the small intestine? Answer: They must be converted to a nearly liquid state.
⩥ What is the significance of the myenteric plexus? Answer: It integrates local reflexes stimulated by food in the digestive tract. ⩥ What is the role of digestive enzymes in digestion? Answer: Digestive enzymes speed up hydrolysis reactions that break down food molecules. ⩥ What is enzymatic hydrolysis? Answer: A process where enzymes catalyze the breakdown of molecules using water. ⩥ What are the main products of amino acid metabolism? Answer: Amino acids are converted into energy-producing compounds and help produce active forms of vitamin D. ⩥ What is the purpose of detoxification in the liver? Answer: Conversion of ammonia from protein breakdown into urea and breakdown of drug metabolites. ⩥ What is phagocytosis? Answer: The process by which blood cells and some bacteria absorb nutrients. ⩥ How are nutrients absorbed in the body? Answer: Nutrients must be absorbed across the epithelial lining of the alimentary canal (enterocytes) to enter the bloodstream.
⩥ What is olfaction? Answer: The sense of smell, which occurs when airborne molecules are drawn into the nasal cavity. ⩥ What organs are included in the respiratory system? Answer: Organs are located in the head, neck, and thoracic cavity, consisting of hollow passages for gas exchange. ⩥ What is the protective function of the respiratory system? Answer: It deters microbes by preventing entry and removing them from respiratory surfaces. ⩥ How does the body regulate blood pH? Answer: Blood pH can be altered by changing CO2 levels in the blood. ⩥ What are the main structures involved in the respiratory system? Answer: Nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchial tree, and lungs. ⩥ What is pulmonary ventilation? Answer: The movement of air in and out of the lungs. ⩥ Define pulmonary gas exchange. Answer: The movement of gases between the lungs and the blood.
⩥ What is gas transport? Answer: The movement of gases through the blood. ⩥ What does tissue gas exchange refer to? Answer: The movement of gases between the blood and the tissues. ⩥ What is cellular respiration? Answer: The use of oxygen by the cells and production of CO2 by the cells. ⩥ Describe the lungs. Answer: A pair of spongy organs in the thoracic cavity, enclosed by the rib cage and diaphragm, containing the bronchial tree and alveoli. ⩥ What are alveoli? Answer: Tiny air sacs arranged in grape-like clusters where gas exchange occurs. ⩥ What are the functions of the nose and nasal cavity? Answer: Warm and humidify inhaled air, filter debris, secrete antibacterial substances, and house olfactory receptors. ⩥ What are the conducting zones of the respiratory system? Answer: Tubes through which air travels, including structures from the nose to the bronchioles.
⩥ What bacterium causes tuberculosis? Answer: Mycobacterium tuberculosis. ⩥ What are common symptoms of active tuberculosis? Answer: Persistent cough with blood-tinged sputum, fever, night sweats, and weight loss. ⩥ What is the pressure-volume relationship in respiration? Answer: It provides the driving force for pulmonary ventilation, with air moving from high to low pressure. ⩥ What factors influence pulmonary ventilation? Answer: Airway resistance, alveolar surface tension, and pulmonary compliance. ⩥ What is the role of smooth muscle in bronchioles? Answer: It controls the diameter of bronchioles, affecting airway resistance. ⩥ What is the process of inhalation? Answer: The act of bringing air into the lungs. ⩥ What is the process of exhalation? Answer: The act of moving air out of the lungs. ⩥ What is a sigh? Answer: A slow, deep inspiration followed by a slow expiration that reopens collapsed alveoli.
⩥ What is a yawn? Answer: A large sigh that takes lung volume to inspiratory capacity. ⩥ What is a sneeze? Answer: A forceful expiration through the nose that clears foreign substances. ⩥ What is a cough? Answer: A rapid expiration to clear the larynx, trachea, or lower airways. ⩥ What does Boyle's law state about gas pressure and volume? Answer: At a constant pressure and number of gas molecules, the pressure and volume of a gas are inversely related. ⩥ What role does surfactant play in the alveoli? Answer: Surfactant reduces surface tension and allows alveoli to remain partially open even during expiration. ⩥ What determines pulmonary compliance? Answer: Pulmonary compliance is determined by the elasticity of lung tissue and the ability of the chest wall to stretch during inspiration. ⩥ What muscles are primarily used for normal inspiration? Answer: The diaphragm and external intercostals are the primary muscles used for normal inspiration.
