BIOS251 Final Exam Review Notes 2025 Update

Critical information to know (Essay Questions)

Know the differences between gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy

Gross anatomy – structures that can be studied without a microscope

Microscopic anatomy – study of anatomical structure that needs a microscope

Know the six levels of organization

1. Chemical – smallest unit of matter (atoms) to form molecules

2. Cellular – molecules combine to form cells, smallest unit of life

3. Tissue – groups of cells joined together to form a specific function

4. Organ – tissues joined together to perform function

5. System – related organs with common functions

6. Organismal – all systems combine together to make any living

individual Know the difference between inorganic and organic molecules

Inorganic – lack Carbon, can have either ionic or covalent bonds

Organic – always contain carbon, and always have covalent bonds

Know what Free Radicals are and why they are dangerous

Free radicals are atoms with an unpaired electron in the outer most shell. They are dangerous because

they are unstable, highly reactive, and destructive to nearby molecules.

Know the process of replication, transcription, and translation

Replication – when DNA strand copies to become two identical molecules

Transcription – is the coding of DNA to RNA

Translation – RNA attaches to ribosome, where information from RNA is translated into a corresponding

sequence of amino acids to form a new protein molecule

Know the genetic code and how it works

Genetic code – is set of rules that relate the base triplet sequence of DNA to the corresponding codons

of RNA and the amino acids they specify

Know how melanin works

Melanin – is a yellow-red or black-brown pigment that contributes to skin color and absorbs damaging

UV light. Once inside keratinocytes, the melanin granules cluster to form a protective veil over the

nucleus. They shield the nuclear DNA from UV light damage. Melanin itself is susceptible to damage by

UV light.

Know first, second, and third degree burns

First-degree burns – involve only the epidermis layer of the skin. It is characterized by mild pain and

redness; no blisters. Healing will occur 3-6 days. Example: mild sunburn

Second-degree burns – destroys the epidermis and part of the dermis. Redness, blisters, edema, and

pain are results of it. Heal without skin grafting in 3-4 weeks, scarring may result.

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Critical information to know (Essay Questions)

Know the differences between gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy Gross anatomy – structures that can be studied without a microscope Microscopic anatomy – study of anatomical structure that needs a microscope Know the six levels of organization

Chemical – smallest unit of matter (atoms) to form molecules
Cellular – molecules combine to form cells, smallest unit of life
Tissue – groups of cells joined together to form a specific function
Organ – tissues joined together to perform function
System – related organs with common functions
Organismal – all systems combine together to make any living individual Know the difference between inorganic and organic molecules Inorganic – lack Carbon, can have either ionic or covalent bonds Organic – always contain carbon, and always have covalent bonds Know what Free Radicals are and why they are dangerous Free radicals are atoms with an unpaired electron in the outer most shell. They are dangerous because they are unstable, highly reactive, and destructive to nearby molecules. Know the process of replication, transcription, and translation Replication – when DNA strand copies to become two identical molecules Transcription – is the coding of DNA to RNA Translation – RNA attaches to ribosome, where information from RNA is translated into a corresponding sequence of amino acids to form a new protein molecule Know the genetic code and how it works Genetic code – is set of rules that relate the base triplet sequence of DNA to the corresponding codons of RNA and the amino acids they specify Know how melanin works Melanin – is a yellow-red or black-brown pigment that contributes to skin color and absorbs damaging UV light. Once inside keratinocytes, the melanin granules cluster to form a protective veil over the nucleus. They shield the nuclear DNA from UV light damage. Melanin itself is susceptible to damage by UV light. Know first, second, and third degree burns First-degree burns – involve only the epidermis layer of the skin. It is characterized by mild pain and redness; no blisters. Healing will occur 3-6 days. Example: mild sunburn Second-degree burns – destroys the epidermis and part of the dermis. Redness, blisters, edema, and pain are results of it. Heal without skin grafting in 3-4 weeks, scarring may result.

Third-degree burns – destroys the epidermis and dermis. Most skin functions are lost. The burn region is numb because sensory nerve endings have been destroyed. Skin grafting needed for healing and to minimize scarring. Know thermoregulation and what happens physiologically in heat and cold Thermoregulation is the homeostatic regulation of body temperature. In high heat temperature, sweat production from eccrine sweat glands increases; the evaporation of sweat from the skin surface helps lower body temperature. Also, blood vessels in dermis become wider to allow more blood flow through dermis, which increases the amount of heat loss from body. In low temperature the production of sweat from eccrine sweat glands is decreased to help conserve heat. Also, blood vessels become narrow to decrease blood flow to reduce heat loss from body.

Be able to explain lengthwise bone growth and appositional bone growth

Lengthwise bone growth – long bone growth during infancy and youth is through interstitial growth of the epiphyseal plates. In interstitial growth chondrocytes in the lacunae divide and secrete matrix, allowing the cartilage to grow from within. In interstitial bone growth, in the zone of ossification the epiphyseal plate becomes the epiphyseal line, the lengthwise growth of bone terminates, and the metaphysis converts from hyaline cartilage to bone. Appositional bone growth – in this process, osteoclasts, cells that work to break down bone, resorb old bone that lines the medullary cavity and osteoblasts produce new bone tissue beneath the periosteum. The erosion of old bone along the medullary cavity and the decomposition of new bone beneath the periosteum adds bone tissue from the surfaces and results in increasing in width and thickness.

Be able to explain the structures of the long bone, especially epiphyses and

diaphysis.

Epiphysis – are the proximal and distal ends of the bone. The exterior is compact bone and the interior is spongy bone. The joint surface is covered with articular hyaline cartilage. Contains red bone marrow. Diaphysis – are tubular shaft that forms the axis of long bones. Is composed of compact bone that surrounds the medullary cavity. Contains fatty yellow bone marrow in adults. Epiphyseal plate allows diaphysis of bone to increase in length.

Be able to explain the importance of the hyoid bone

Hyoid bone – does not articulate with any other bone. It is suspended from the styloid processes of the temporal bones by ligaments and muscles. The hyoid bone supports the tongue, providing attachment sites for muscles of the tongue, neck, and pharynx. It plays an important part when doing an autopsy on a body because if it is fractured it indicates that strangulation was done. Know the major sutural bones and their locations

Be able to explain the purpose of the articular vertebrae

Chapter 6 – causes of skin aging, what vitiligo is, hematopoiesis, osteoporosis, periosteum, function of spongy bone and compact bone, yellow marrow, endosteum, functions of osteocytes, osteoblast, osteoclast, chondrocytes, articular cartilage Chapter 7 – patella (sesamoid bone), sutures, spins bifida, the unpaired facial bones, what are the facial bones, iliac crest, contact points of the tibia, non-weight-bearing bones, bones in the wrist, vomer, weight bearing part of vertebral column, shape of thoracic vertebrae, function of axial skeleton Chapter 8 – structures of the ishium, ligaments of the hyoid bond, mastoid process, weight bearing parts of vertebra, bones contacting the metatarsals and metacarpals, center of gravity, antebrachium, cruciate ligaments, amphiarthroses Chapter 9 – different types of joints, bursitis, gliding movements, menisci, synchondroses, synovial fluid

BIOS251 Final Exam Review Notes 2025 Update, Study Guides, Projects, Research of Biology

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