Download BLG 111 FINAL TEST PREP COURSEWORK SCRIPT STUDY SHEET 2026 GRADED A+. and more Exams Biology in PDF only on Docsity!
BLG 111 FINAL TEST PREP COURSEWORK
SCRIPT STUDY SHEET 2026 GRADED A+.
◍ What are the primary sex organs (gonads) in males and females? Answer: Testes in males and ovaries in females. ◍ What are the two main products produced by gonads? Answer: 1. Gametes (sperm in males and ova in females). 2. Sex hormones (testosterone in males, estrogens and progesterone in females). ◍ What is the role of sex hormones in the reproductive system? Answer: They are vital for the development and function of reproductive organs, sexual behavior, and sexual drives. ◍ What is the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal (HPG) Axis? Answer: It is the hormonal system that regulates the production of gametes and sex hormones through interactions of GnRH, FSH, LH, testosterone, and inhibin. ◍ What hormones are involved in the regulation of the reproductive system? Answer: GnRH, FSH, LH, testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, and inhibin. ◍ What happens to the hypothalamus during puberty? Answer: It becomes less sensitive to inhibition by sex hormones and begins to release GnRH in a pulse-like manner.
◍ What is meiosis? Answer: A unique kind of nuclear division that occurs only in gonads, reducing the number of chromosomes in gametes by half. ◍ What are sister chromatids? Answer: Identical copies of a chromosome that are joined together by a centromere. ◍ What are homologous pairs of chromosomes? Answer: Pairs of chromosomes, one from each parent, that carry the same genes coding for the same traits. ◍ What are nonsister chromatids? Answer: Chromatids of one chromosome that are nonsister chromatids to another chromosome in a homologous pair, which can exchange DNA during crossing over. ◍ What is the difference between diploid and haploid cells? Answer: Diploid cells contain 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes, while haploid cells contain a single set of chromosomes (n). ◍ What are the two main stages of meiosis? Answer: Meiosis I and Meiosis II. ◍ What is the outcome of meiosis? Answer: The product is four haploid daughter cells.
◍ What is the role of testosterone in males? Answer: It acts at target tissues in the body and is vital for male reproductive organ development and function. ◍ What are the roles of estrogen and progesterone in females? Answer: They act at target tissues in the body and are crucial for female reproductive organ development and function. ◍ What is the chromosome number reduction that occurs during Meiosis I? Answer: Chromosome number is reduced from 2n to n. ◍ What unique events occur during Prophase I of meiosis that are not seen in mitosis or meiosis II? Answer: Synapsis occurs, where homologous chromosomes pair up to form tetrads consisting of 4 chromatids, and crossover (chiasmata) happens, exchanging genetic material between male and female chromatids. ◍ What is the significance of crossover during meiosis? Answer: Crossover results in unique chromosomes that are mixtures of maternal and paternal chromosomes. ◍ How do tetrads align during Metaphase I? Answer: Tetrads line up randomly at the spindle equator, with paternal or maternal homologous chromosomes on either side. ◍ What happens during Anaphase I of meiosis? Answer: Each homologous pair is distributed to opposite ends of the cell.
◍ What is the result of meiosis I in terms of daughter cells? Answer: Each daughter cell has two copies (sister chromatids) of one member of each homologous pair and a haploid chromosomal number. ◍ What is the difference in chromosome replication between meiosis II and mitosis? Answer: In meiosis II, chromosomes are not replicated before the process begins. ◍ What type of cells undergo meiosis II? Answer: Haploid cells undergo meiosis II. ◍ What is the primary function of mitosis? Answer: Mitosis ensures that all cells in the body have the same complement of DNA for normal growth and repair. ◍ What are the two main functions of meiosis? Answer: Meiosis cuts the number of chromosomes in half (from 2n to n) and introduces genetic diversity, as all daughter cells are genetically different from the original cell. ◍ How does random alignment of homologous pairs contribute to genetic variability? Answer: Random alignment provides variability in the genetic makeup of daughter cells.
◍ How long is the ductus deferens and what is its function? Answer: The ductus deferens is about 45 cm long and propels sperm from the epididymis to the urethra. ◍ What is a vasectomy? Answer: A vasectomy is a surgical procedure that involves cutting and ligating the ductus deferens, serving as an effective form of birth control. ◍ What dual function does the urethra serve in males? Answer: The urethra allows for the passage of both urine and semen, but not at the same time. ◍ What are the functions of the seminal glands (seminal vesicles)? Answer: They produce viscous alkaline seminal fluid containing fructose, citric acid, coagulating enzyme (vesiculase), and prostaglandins, and comprise 70% of semen volume. ◍ What is the role of the prostate gland in semen production? Answer: It secretes a milky, slightly acidic fluid that contains enzymes like relaxin and fibrinolysin, plays a role in sperm activation, and makes up one-third of semen volume. ◍ What do the bulbo-urethral glands produce and what is its function? Answer: They produce thick, clear mucus (pre-ejaculate) that neutralizes traces of acidic urine in the urethra.
◍ What is prostate cancer and how common is it? Answer: Prostate cancer is the third most common cause of cancer death in males, affecting 1 in 6 men. ◍ What are the common treatments for prostate cancer? Answer: Treatment options include surgery, radiation, and drugs that block testosterone synthesis or action. ◍ What is spermatogenesis? Answer: Spermatogenesis is the process of forming sperm, occurring in the seminiferous tubules, beginning at puberty. ◍ How many sperm does an adult male produce daily? Answer: Approximately 90 million sperm. ◍ What are the four important types of cells found in the seminiferous tubules? Answer: Sustentocytes, spermatogenic cells, myoid cells, and interstitial endocrine cells (Leydig cells). ◍ What is the function of sustentocytes in spermatogenesis? Answer: They support sperm formation, form the blood-testis barrier, provide nutrients, phagocytize faulty germ cells, and produce mediators like androgen-binding protein (ABP) and inhibin. ◍ What is the process of spermatogenesis and its three main steps? Answer: The process involves mitosis of spermatogonia, meiosis to form spermatocytes and spermatids, and spermiogenesis where spermatids become sperm.
contract to help squeeze sperm and testicular fluid through the tubules. ◍ What is the composition of the fluid secreted by the prostate gland? Answer: The fluid is milky and slightly acidic, containing enzymes that enhance sperm motility and liquefy semen. ◍ What is the function of the seminal fluid produced by the seminal glands? Answer: It decreases the viscosity of mucus in the cervix and stimulates reverse peristalsis in the uterus. ◍ What is the significance of prostate-specific antigen (PSA)? Answer: PSA is a protein secreted by the prostate that plays a role in sperm activation. ◍ What are the potential issues with PSA screening for prostate cancer? Answer: PSA screening has a high rate of false positives. ◍ What are the characteristics of spermatogenic cells? Answer: Spermatogenic cells are surrounded by sustentocytes and give rise to sperm. ◍ What is the role of interstitial endocrine cells (Leydig cells) in the testes? Answer: Leydig cells produce androgens. ◍ What is the sequence of hormonal events regulating the production of gametes and sex hormones in the male reproductive system?
Answer: It involves the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary gland, and testes, known as the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis. ◍ Which hormones are involved in the HPG axis? Answer: GnRH, FSH, LH, testosterone, and inhibin. ◍ What are the male secondary sex characteristics induced by testosterone? Answer: They include the appearance of pubic, axillary, and facial hair; enlarged larynx causing a deepened voice; thicker and oilier skin; increased bone density; larger skeletal muscles; boosted basal metabolic rate; and libido. ◍ What are the primary functions of the ovaries in the female reproductive system? Answer: Ovaries produce female gametes (ova) and secrete female sex hormones, including estrogen and progesterone. ◍ What are the components of the female internal genitalia? Answer: The internal genitalia include the ovaries and the duct system, which consists of uterine tubes, the uterus, and the vagina. ◍ What occurs during ovulation in the female reproductive system? Answer: A ripened ovarian follicle ejects an immature egg (oocyte) into the uterine tube. ◍ What is the function of the uterine tubes (fallopian tubes)? Answer: They receive the ovulated oocyte and are the usual site of fertilization.
◍ What are some risk factors for cervical cancer? Answer: Frequent cervical inflammation, STIs including HPV, and multiple pregnancies. ◍ What is Gardasil and its purpose? Answer: Gardasil is a three-dose vaccine that protects against HPV. ◍ At what ages is the Gardasil vaccine recommended? Answer: It is recommended for 11- and 12-year-olds. ◍ What is the purpose of a Papanicolaou (Pap) smear? Answer: A Pap smear is used for the detection of cervical cancer. ◍ How often is a Pap smear recommended for women aged 21-30? Answer: Every 3 years. ◍ How often is a Pap smear recommended for women aged 30-65? Answer: Every 5 years. ◍ What are ovarian follicles? Answer: Ovarian follicles are tiny saclike structures embedded in the ovarian cortex that contain immature eggs (oocytes) encased by one or more layers of cells. ◍ What happens to some oocytes during the journey to the uterine tube? Answer: Some oocytes may never make it to the tube system.
◍ What is the role of smooth muscle peristalsis and ciliary action in the uterine tubes? Answer: They help carry the oocyte along toward the uterus. ◍ What is the main function of mammary glands? Answer: Milk production to nourish newborns. ◍ What are mammary glands classified as? Answer: Modified sweat glands consisting of 15-25 lobes. ◍ What is the areola? Answer: The pigmented skin surrounding the nipple. ◍ What is the most common malignancy in women? Answer: Invasive breast cancer. ◍ What is the second most common cause of cancer death in women? Answer: Breast cancer. ◍ From which cells does invasive breast cancer usually arise? Answer: Epithelial cells of the smallest ducts. ◍ What are some risk factors for breast cancer? Answer: Early onset of menstruation, late menopause, no pregnancies or late first pregnancy, no or short breastfeeding periods, and family history of breast cancer.
◍ At what stage is meiosis arrested in secondary oocytes? Answer: Metaphase II. ◍ What triggers the activation of primary oocytes after puberty? Answer: High levels of FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone). ◍ What happens to most primordial follicles? Answer: They undergo atresia, or programmed cell death. ◍ What is the fate of a dominant follicle during ovulation? Answer: It resumes meiosis I just before ovulation, generating a first polar body and secondary oocyte. ◍ What is the antrum in the context of follicle development? Answer: A large cavity formed when fluid accumulates between granulosa cells. ◍ What happens to the ruptured follicle after ovulation? Answer: It transforms into a glandular structure called the corpus luteum. ◍ How long may follicles and oocytes take to mature before ovulation can occur? Answer: Nearly a year. ◍ What is the zona pellucida? Answer: A glycoprotein-rich substance that encapsulates the oocyte.
◍ What is the ovarian cycle? Answer: A monthly (~28 day) series of events associated with the maturation of an egg. ◍ What are the two phases of the ovarian cycle? Answer: The follicular phase and the luteal phase. ◍ What occurs during the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle? Answer: It is the period of vesicular follicle growth, lasting from days 1 to 14. ◍ What is the duration of the luteal phase in the ovarian cycle? Answer: The luteal phase lasts from days 14 to 28 and is always 14 days long. ◍ What percentage of women have a 28-day cycle? Answer: Only 10- 15% of women have a 28-day cycle. ◍ What happens to the dominant follicle during the follicular phase? Answer: The dominant follicle becomes especially sensitive to FSH and continues to grow, while non-dominant follicles undergo atresia. ◍ What is the outcome of the primary oocyte in the dominant follicle during the follicular phase? Answer: It completes meiosis I to form a secondary oocyte and a first polar body.
◍ What is the role of GnRH in the ovarian cycle? Answer: GnRH stimulates the secretion of FSH and LH from the pituitary gland. ◍ How do FSH and LH affect the follicles? Answer: They stimulate the growth, maturation, and secretion of sex hormones from the follicles. ◍ What is the negative feedback mechanism in the ovarian cycle? Answer: Increasing estrogen levels inhibit the release of FSH and LH. ◍ What is the role of inhibin in the ovarian cycle? Answer: Inhibin from granulosa cells inhibits FSH release. ◍ What triggers the LH surge during the ovarian cycle? Answer: A critical high level of estrogen from the dominant follicle triggers a brief positive feedback on the brain and anterior pituitary. ◍ What happens shortly after ovulation? Answer: Estrogen levels decline, LH transforms the ruptured follicle into the corpus luteum, and progesterone is secreted. ◍ What is the function of progesterone in the ovarian cycle? Answer: It helps maintain the stratum functionalis and supports pregnancy if it occurs. ◍ What is the fate of the secondary oocyte after ovulation? Answer: It enters meiosis II and continues to metaphase II.
◍ What happens to non-dominant follicles during the follicular phase? Answer: They undergo atresia and do not continue to mature. ◍ What inhibits LH and FSH release during the menstrual cycle? Answer: Negative feedback from rising plasma progesterone and estrogen levels. ◍ What role does inhibin play in the menstrual cycle? Answer: Inhibin, from corpus luteum and granulosa cells, enhances the inhibitory effect on LH and FSH release. ◍ What happens to the corpus luteum if fertilization does not occur? Answer: The corpus luteum degenerates when LH levels start to fall. ◍ What is the effect of declining LH on the ovarian cycle? Answer: Declining LH ends luteal activity and inhibits follicle development. ◍ What initiates the start of a new menstrual cycle? Answer: A sharp decrease in estrogen and progesterone after the degeneration of the corpus luteum ends the blockage of FSH and LH secretion. ◍ When is the oocyte activated in relation to ovulation? Answer: The oocyte is activated 12 months prior to ovulation but matures 14 days before ovulation.
