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Chamberlain BIOS 251 Exam 1 What 4 ways do you examine the body? Inspection, Palpation, Auscultation and Percussion Inspection Seeing the body Palpation to examine by touch Auscultation Listening with a stethoscope Percussion taking hands and beating over certain parts of body Medical Imaging methods of viewing the inside of the body without surgery, i.e. radiology Gross Anatomy Study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye Histology the study of the microscopic structure of tissues Histopathology microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease Cytology study of structure and function of cells Ultrastructure fine detail, down to the molecular level, revealed by the electron microscope Subdisciplines of Physiology neurophysiology, endocrinology, pathophysiology
Neurophysiology physiology of the nervous system Endocrinology study of hormones Pathophysiology mechanisms of disease Hippocrates Father of medicine Scientific Fact information that can be independently verified Law of Nature a generalization about the predictable ways in which matter and energy behave Theory explanatory statement or set of statements derived from facts, laws and confirmed hypotheses Bipedalism the ability to walk upright on two legs The Hierarchy of Complexity Organ system-organs-tissues-cells-organelles-molecules-atoms situs invertus heart is on the opposite side Organization living things exhibit a higher level of organization than nonliving things Cellular Composition living matter is always compartmentalized into one or more cells
Integrating (control) Center control center that processes the sensory information, "makes a decision," and directs the response Effector cell or organ that carries out the final corrective action to restore homeostasis Positive Feedback Self-amplifying cycle where the feedback loop is repeated. Normal way of producing rapid changes. Can sometimes be dangerous. ex. childbirth Gradient a difference in chemical concentration, charge, temperature, or pressure between two points. Chemicals flow down concentration gradients. Charged particles flow down electrical gradients. Heat flows down thermal gradients. CT Scan computed tomography scan MRI magnetic resonance imaging PET scan a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task Sonography high frequency sound waves echo back from internal organs The relationship between function and structure Form creates function, function predicts form The primary function of red blood cells
To transport vital gases to and from the body tissues. Red blood cells transport oxygen to the tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs so that it can be exhaled out of the body. How are red blood cells unlike other body cells? As they mature they lose their nucleus and organelles, which allows room for more hemoglobin molecules which are oxygen binding proteins. What do red blood cells display? Viscoelasticity, they have the ability to go back to their original shape if they become deformed due to stress. This allows them to be able to flow through narrow blood vessels. Superior Structure that is toward the head of the body How many body cavities are in the body? 4 Ventral/Dorsal front and back anterior/posterior Toward the ventral side Toward the dorsal side Cephallic toward the head or superior end Rostral toward the forehead or nose Caudal toward the tail or inferior end Inferior below
Crainial (brain), Vertebral (spinal cord), Thoracic (lungs), Abdominopelvic (all abdominal and pelvic organs) What separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity? diaphragm throacic cavity Has 2 pleural cavities each of which surrounds a lung, each lung sits beside mediastinum. Contains: Heart, portions of trachea, esophagus. Also contains the pericardial cavity, which houses the heart. Abdominopelvic cavity Abdominal cavity, contains: stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, superior region of cavity. Pelvic cavity, contains: urinary bladder, reproductive organs and rectum. Inferior region of cavity. What are body cavities made of? Lined by serous membranes, 2 layered tissue that is lubricated by a serum like fluid which covers the organs. They consist of a parietal layer (lines cavity) and visceral layer (covers organ) and fluid filled cavity between each layer. 4 abdominopelvic quadrants Right upper quadrant (RUQ) Left upper quadrant (LUQ) Right lower quadrant (RLQ) Left lower quadrant (LLQ) 9 abdominopelvic regions right hypochondriac, epigastric, left hypochondriac, right lumbar, umbilical, left lumbar, right iliac, hypogastric, left iliac Right Upper Quadrant Liver, gallbladder, portion of stomach, right kidney, portion of pancreas, right adrenal gland Left Upper Quadrant
Stomach, pancreas, left kidney, spleen, left adrenal gland Right Lower Quadrant Appendix, portions of reproductive organs, right ureter Lower Quadrant Portions of reproductive organs, Left Ureter Right Hypochondriac Region Liver, gallbladder, right kidney, portions of small and large intestines Epigastric Region Liver, stomach, pancreas, duodenum, spleen, adrenal glands Left Hypochondriac Region Spleen, Large and small intestines, Left Kidney, Pancreas, Stomach, Small portion of the liver Right Lumbar Region Portions of the ascending colon, Portions of the small intestine, right kidney umbilical region Duodenum, Small intestine, transverse colon Left Lumbar Region Portions of the descending colon, Portions of the small intestine, Left kidney Right Iliac Region Appendix, cecum, ascending colon, small intestine Hypogastric Region Urinary bladder, Portions of the sigmoid colon, small intestines, reproductive organs Left Iliac Region Portions of the sigmoid colon, descending colon, small intestines
Functions of the Muscular System movement, posture, heat production Components of the Muscular System muscles and tendons Functions of the Nervous System provides communication between body systems, controls other body systems and their functions, processes sensory information Components of the Nervous System brain, spinal cord Functions of the Endocrine System regulates metabolism, growth, reproduction, utilizes hormones that are secreted into the blood stream Components of the Endocrine System Hypothalamus Pituitary Glands, Thyroid Glands, Parathyroid Glands Adrenal Glands, Thymus, Reproductive organs: Ovaries & Testes, Pancreas Functions of the Cardiovascular System transport gases, nutrients, hormones and waste; plays role in distribution of body heat Components of the cardiovascular system heart, blood vessels (arteries, capillaries, veins), blood Functions of the lymphatic system transport lymph throughout body, detect/fight pathogens and disease, plays role in fluid balance, transportation/absorption of fats components of lymphatic system lymph nodes, lymph nodules, lymph vessels, thymus, spleen
Functions of the respiratory system gas exchange, olfaction, sound production Components of the respiratory system nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs (bronchiole, alveoli) Functions of the Urinary System eliminates waste, regulates blood volume, blood pressure, blood composition and blood pH Components of the Urinary System kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra Functions of the Digestive System Breaks down food; absorbs nutrients; eliminates wastes Components of the Digestive System Gastrointestinal tract (oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum, anus), Digestive accessory organs (Salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas) Functions of the male reproductive system Produce sex hormones, produce sex cells, maintain male sex characteristics Components of the male reproductive system testis, epididymis, vas deferens, scrotum, penis, urethra, male accessory glands (seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands) Functions of the Female Reproductive System production of sex hormones, sex cells, maintenance of female sex characteristics, nurture developing fetus Components of the Female Reproductive system Ovaries, oviducts (uterine tubes, fallopian tubes), uterus, vagina, breasts What is the body's response to blood loss?
Number of protons and neutrons Isotopes varieties of an element that differ only in the number of neutrons What can affect atomic weight? extra neutrons Why are isotopes of an element chemically similar? they have the same number of valence electrons Radioisotopes unstable isotopes that decay and give off radiation Ion charged particle with unequal number of protons and electrons Ionization transfer of electrons from one atom to another Anion particle with a net negative charge Cation particle with a net positive charge Electrolyte substances that ionize in water and form solutions capable of conducting electric current Electrolyte importance Chemical reactivity, osmotic effects, electrical excitability of nerve and muscle What can electrolyte imbalance lead to? coma or cardiac arrest Free Radicals
short-lived particles with an unusual number of electrons; produced by normal metabolic reactions, radiation, certain chemicals; trigger reactions that destroy molecules and can cause cancer, aging, death of heart tissue Antioxidants chemicals that neutralize free radicals, SOD (superoxide dismutase) is an antioxidant enzyme in the body; Selenium, Vitamin C and E and carotenoids are antioxidants obtained through diet Molecule A particle made of two or more atoms bonded together united by a chemical bond Compound Molecule composed of two or more different elements Molecular Formula identifies constituent elements and how many atoms of each are present Structural Formula identifies location of each atom Isomer molecules with identical molecular formula but different arrangement of atoms How to find the molecular weight? sum of all the atomic weights of its atoms Chemical Bonds the attractive forces that hold atoms together Types of Chemical Bonds ionic, covalent, hydrogen, van der waals forces, Ionic Bond attraction of a cation to an anion, easily broken by water
Adhesion tendency of one substance to cling to another; water adheres to large membranes reducing friction around organs Cohesion tendency of like molecules to cling to one another Chemical Reactivity ability to participate in chemical reactions; water ionizes into H+ and OH- heat capacity the number of heat units needed to raise the temperature of a body by one degree. Calorie base unit of heat Solution consists of particles called the solute mixed with a more abundant substance Properties of Solutions under 1 nm, dont scatter light, will pass through most membranes, wont separate on standing Colloids mixtures of protein and water, can change from liquid to gel between cells Properties of Colloids particles range from 1 - 100nm in size, scatter light and are usually cloudy, particles are too large to pass through semipermeable membrane and remain permanently mixed with the solvent when mixture stands Properties of Suspension particles exceed 100nm, too large to penetrate selectively permeable membranes, cloudy or opaque, seperates on standing Emulsion
suspension of one liquid in another Acid Proton donor (releases H+ ions in water); less than 7 Base Proton acceptor (accepts H+ ions or releases OH- ions); more than 7 pH measure of acidity derived from the molarity of H+; 7 is neutral How many more times is pH 4.0 than pH 5.0? 10 times Anabolism building up process; energy storing (endergonic) synthesis reactions; requires energy input; Catabolism breaking down process of covalent bonds; energy releasing (exergonic) decomposition reactions; produces smaller molecules Anabolism+Catabolism Metabolism Decomposition Reactions large molecule breaks down into two or more smaller ones; AB->A+B Synthesis Reactions two or more small molecules combine to form a larger one; A+B->AB Exchange Reaction two molecules exchange atoms or group of atoms; AB+CD->ABCD- >AC+BD Reversible Reaction Symbolized with double headed arrow;
protein based substance that's going to alter the rate of chemical reactions Monosaccharide simplest carbohydrates, monomers Three important monomers Glucose, Galactose, Fructose Monomers produced by digestion of more complex carbohydrates, glucose is blood sugar, Disaccharide sugars made of two covalently bonded monosaccharides 3 important disaccharides Sucrose (table sugar) glucose+fructose, Lactose (milk sugar) glucose+galactose, maltose (sugar in grain products) glucose+glucose Oligosaccharides short chains of 3 or more monosaccharides (at least 10) Polysaccharides long chains of monosaccharides (at least 50) 3 important polysaccharides glycogen (energy storage in cells of liver, muscle, brain, uterus vagina), starch (energy storage in plants that are digestible by humans), cellulose (structural molecule in plants thats important for human dietary fiber) Properties of Carbohydrates quickly mobilized source of energy (all digested forms convert to glucose and oxidized to make ATP); often conjugated with lipids or proteins (lipid and protein molecules at the external surface of the cell membrane often have chains of sugars attached to them (glycolipids, glycoproteins); proteoglycans are more carbohydrate than protein Lipids
hydrophobic organic molecules with a high ratio of hydrogen to oxygen 5 primary types of lipids in the body Fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, eicosanoids, steroids Fatty Acids chains of 4-24 carbon atoms with carboxyl group on one end and methyl group on the other, must be attained from food, classified as saturated or unsaturated Unsaturated Fats contain some double bonds between carbons, molecule has potential to add hydrogen Saturated Fatty Acids carbon atoms linked by single covalent bonds, molecule contains as much hydrogen as possible Triglycerides 3 fatty acids linked to glycerol, formed by dehydration synthesis; broken down by hydrolysis; primary function is energy storage; dietary fats and oils, Trans Fatty Acids 2 covalent single C_C bonds angle in opposites on each side of the C=C double bond; resists enzymatic breakdown in the human body, remains in circulation longer, deposits in the arteries which contributes to heart disease Cis-fatty acids Two covalent single C-C bonds angle in the same direction adjacent to the C=C double bond Phospholipids similar to neutral fats except one fatty acid is replaced by a phosphate group, structural foundation of cell membrane; amphipathic (fatty acid tails are hydrophobic, phosphate head is hydrophilic)
