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Republic of the Philippines Department of Education ILOCOS NORTE COLLEGE OF ARTS AND TRADES Laoag City LECTURE IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH I
CHAPTER I: Nature of Inquiry and Research
Humans are naturally curious about anything and everything. We always ask questions and test theories about ourselves, others, events, the environment, and the world around us. Research is asking questions and looking for answers to these questions. We are already engaging ourselves into research when we are looking for and into something, when we are comparing things, when we are searching for more information, and when we are finding what people think and want. Research
- It was coined from the French word “ cerhier ” which means seek; prefix “ re ” means to repeat. - Literally, it means to repeat looking for something. It is finding the truth again about ideas and problems which were in existence before in different perspectives. - It is widely recognized as an important tool for solving man’s various problems and in making life more colorful and convenient. Ex. modern gadgets, medicines, tools and equipment that make our tasks easier - It is a natural day-to-day activity of gathering information. There is one form of research, however, which is more disciplined in its methodology and more scientific in its procedure. It is called academic research. Quantitative Research - It is an objective, systematic, empirical investigation of observable phenomena through the use of computational techniques. - It highlights numerical analysis of data hoping that the numbers yield unbiased results that can be generalized to some larger population and explain a particular observation Characteristics of Quantitative Research Objective. It seeks accurate measurement and analysis of target concepts. It is not based on mere intuitions/guesses. Clearly Defined Research Questions. The researchers know in advance what they are looking for. Structured Research Instruments. Data are normally gathered using structured research tools such as questionnaires to collect measurable characteristics of the population like age, socioeconomic status, number of children, etc. Numerical Data. Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, oftem organized and presented using table, charts, graphs and figures that consolidate large numbers of data to show trends, relationships, or differences. Large Sample Sizes. To arrive at a more reliable data analysis, a large sample size is required. Random sampling is recommended in determining the sample size to avoid researcher’s bias in interpreting the results. Replication. Reliable quantitative studies can be repeated to verify or confirm the correctness of the results. Future Outcomes. By using mathematical calculations and with the aid of computers, if-then scenarios may be formulated thus predicting future results. Strengths of Quantitative Research It is objective. It cannot be easily misinterpreted. The use of statistical techniques allows you to comprehend a huge number of vital characteristics of data. The numerical data can be analyzed in a quick and easy way. It requires a large number of respondents. Thus, the findings are more statistically accurate. Quantitative studies are replicable. Weaknesses of Quantitative Research It is costly. The expenses will be greater in reaching out to a lot of people and in reproducing the questionnaires. The information contextual factors to help interpret the results or to explain variations are usually ignored. It does not consider the distinct capacity of the respondents to share and elaborate further information.
Many information is difficult to gather specifically on sensitive issues like pre-marital sex, domestic violence, etc. If not done seriously and correctly, data from questionnaires may be incomplete and inaccurate. Researchers must be on the look-out on respondents who are just guessing in answering the instrument. Kinds of Quantitative Research Descriptive Research
- It is concerned with describing the nature, characteristics and components of the population. - There is no manipulation of variables or search for cause and effect related to the phenomenon. - It finds general attributes of the existing situation and determine the frequency with which it occurs. - Ex. Number of Hours SHS Students Spend in Social Media, Number of Malnourished Students who Failed in the Achievement Test, Healthiness of the Foods Served During Recess in the Public Schools Correlational Research - It is the systematic investigation of the nature of relationships, or associations between and among variables without necessarily investigating into causal reasons underlying them. - It is also concerned with the extent of relationships that exists between and among variables. - Ex. Sex and Mathematical Ability, Marriage and Cancer Recovery, Occupation and Life Span Evaluation Research - It aims to assess the effects, impacts or outcomes of practices, policies or programs. - Ex. Assessing the Implementation of Nursing Care in a Hospital, Determining the Impact of a New Treatment Procedure for Patients, Effectivity of K to 12 Curriculum Survey Research - It is used to gather information from groups of people by selecting and studying samples - Cross-sectional: The information is collected from a sample in just single point in time. Ex. Child-rearing Practices of Single Parents, Population Control Practices of Unmarried Couples - Longitudinal: The researcher collects information on the same subjects over a period of time, sometimes lasting many years. Ex. Growth of Rice Yield in the Country, Rate of Promotion of Doctorate Degree Holders Five Years After Earning the Degree Causal-Comparative Research - It is also known as ex post facto (after the fact) research. - This derives conclusion from observations and manifestations that already occurred in the past and now compared to some dependent variables. It discusses why and how a phenomenon occurs. - Ex. How Weight Influences Stress-Coping Level of Adults Experimental Research - This utilizes scientific method to test cause-and-effect relationships under conditions controlled. - An independent variable is manipulated to determine the effects on the dependent variable. - Ex. A teacher would like to know if a new teaching strategy is effective or not so s/he teaches one section using the new strategy and teaches another comparable section without the new strategy, then an achievement test was given to the sections. Types of Variables QUALITATIVE VARIABLES: These allow for classification based on some characteristic. With measurements of qualitative/categorical variables you cannot do things like add and subtract, and multiply and divide.
- Nominal / Categorical Variable This variable can only assume categorical or classification values. There is no ordering of the categories. ex. Student number, account number, civil status, color
- Ordinal Variable This variable can assume rank values. There is a clear ordering of the variables. ex. Degree of dislike, educational attainment, degree of difficulty QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES: These are measured numerically. With measurements of quantitative variables, you can do things like add and subtract, and multiply and divide, and get a meaningful result.
- Interval Variable This variable can assume values with numerical meanings. The value does not have true zero point. ex. Scores, grades, temperature in Celsius and in Fahrenheit
- Ratio Variable
_____ 7. The independent variable is the variable predicted. _____ 8. A fewer number of respondents is needed in a study to minimize the error. _____ 9. Longitudinal survey covers a single period of time. _____ 10. In quantitative research, respondents are given very limited opportunity to elaborate their responses. IV. Write the letter of the correct answer on the space before the number. _____ 1. Which of the following BEST defines quantitative research? A. It produces or prove a theorem. B. It is concerned with finding new truths in education. C. It is an exploration associated with libraries, books and journals. D. It is a systematic process for obtaining numerical information about the world. Refer to the following characteristics of research for items 2-5: A. Objective B. Numerical Data C. Replication D. Large Sample Sizes _____ 2. Data are in the form of statistics. _____ 3. It is not based on guess work. _____ 4. It is needed to arrive at a more reliable data analysis. _____ 5. It is done to check the correctness and verify the findings of the study. _____ 6. Which research design seeks to describe “what is”? A. Correlational C. Experimental B. Descriptive D. Evaluation _____ 7. In this type of research, the investigator tries to probe the significance of relationship between two or more factors or characteristics. A. Correlational C. Ex-post Facto B. Experimental D. Survey Refer to the following variables for items 8-10: A. Interval B. Ratio C. Nominal D. Ordinal _____ 8. It can be ordered. _____ 9. It can be measured along a continuum. _____ 10. Its sub-type is dichotomous variable. V. Using Venn Diagrams, show the similarities and differences between continuous and discrete variable.
Continuous Variable Discrete Variable
Republic of the Philippines Department of Education ILOCOS NORTE COLLEGE OF ARTS AND TRADES Laoag City LECTURE IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH I
CHAPTER 2: Identifying and Stating the Problem
Research as the Art of Inquiry, Revisited Research is the primary source of knowledge. It aims to develop new knowledge and apply scientific and engineering principles to connect the knowledge in one field to that in others. Research is a structured inquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems and creates new knowledge that is generally acceptable. It is essential to human’s existence to keep abreast with the continuous technological advancement, fast changing environment, ever evolving competition, and even to some extent, a mean for survival. Research findings can guide school administrators, academic heads, curriculum planners, and teachers in policy making and in improving the effectiveness of teaching strategies. It is recommended that it is sound to know not only what is generally supposed to be true about several phenomena and theories but also the level to which properly conducted research support such beliefs. In order to assess the degree to which beliefs are supported, it is necessary to understand the research process. Research Topic
- It is an intellectual stimulus calling for an answer in the form of scientific inquiry. - Topics or problems are general questions about relations among variables, or characteristics of the phenomenon which a researcher needs to undertake. Sources of Research Topics The following are the things that may be considered before starting the research activity:
- Prevailing theories or philosophy
- Observations, intuitions or a combination of both
- Different subjects taken and from them identify a problem that interests a student-researcher most
- Fields of interest or specialization or event from related fields
- Existing problems in the classroom/school/campus/university which one may want to solve
- Existing needs of the community or society
- Repetition or extension of investigations already conducted
- Related studies and literatures
- Advice of authorities or experts from funding agencies
- Offshoots of friendly conversations
- Incidental from interesting topics of professors during the course meeting/session Selecting the Research Topic In choosing a research problem, be guided by the following criteria: 1. It should be something new or different from what has already been written about. It must be original. 2. It must necessarily arouse intellectual curiosity. 3. It should be of researcher’s interest and researcher must be with the topic. 4. It should be a modest one for a beginner to be carried on within a limited period of time. 5. It should be clear, not ambiguous. It should be specific, not general. 6. It should consider the training and personal qualifications of the researcher. 7. It should consider the availability of data involved in the study and the methods and techniques to be employed in gathering them. 8. It should consider the availability of effective instruments for gathering the data and their treatment.
- the objective; and
- research questions. Objective or Purpose of the Study. It is the first part of the problem where the researcher states the objective. This is a statement of a long-term objective expected to be achieved by the study. This is derived by the identification and crystallization of the research problem and as reflected in the title. Research Questions. The specific questions which are to be answered in the study are called research questions and are all in question form. Is the objective or purpose of the study observable, measurable or verifiable? Focus on a clear objective. State the precise goal. The problem should be limited enough in making a definite conclusion possible.
- The major statement or question may be followed by minor statements or questions.
- If the goal is specifically to test a given hypothesis then state so. In many cases, the objective will be a more general statement than that of a hypothesis.
- Investigative questions are the specific topical questions that one must resolve to achieve research objective or test the research hypothesis. Scope and Delimitation of the Study The scope describes the coverage of the study. It specifies what is covered in terms of concept, number of subjects or the population included in the study, as well as the timeline when the study was conducted. Delimit by citing factors or variables that are not to be included and the boundary in terms of time frame and number of respondents. This section discusses the parameters of the research in paragraph. It answers the basic questions:
- What: The topic of investigation and the variables included
- Where: The venue or setting of the research
- When: The time frame by which the study was conducted
- Why: The general objectives of the research
- Who: The subject of the study, the population and sampling method used
- How: The methodology of the research which may include the research design, methodology and the research instrument Significance of the Study In this part of the research, the researcher defines who will benefit out of the findings of the study. S/he describes how the problem will be solved and specifically pinpoints who will benefit from such finding or results. Usually the beneficiaries of the study are those experts concerned about the problem, the administrators or policy-makers who make the decisions or implement programs, the subjects themselves, future researchers and those who are directly or indirectly affected by the problem. In this portion, one may also state the specific sectors who will benefit from the study.
ACTIVITY: On the space provided, write T if the statement is True and F if false. _____ 1. The research title must summarize the main idea of the study. _____ 2. A friendly conversation can be a source of a research topic. _____ 3. Stating the significance of the study is the first phase in research. _____ 4. Citing relevant past researches on the same study in your introductions suggests that your research Lacks novelty. _____ 5. Delimitations in the study entail the accepted shortcoming in conducting the research. _____ 6. An existing problem in your classroom can be considered as a research problem. _____ 7. The time frame of the study may be omitted in the research. _____ 8. The setting of the study may not be cited in the scope and delimitations. _____ 9. The significance of the study presents the coverage and boundaries of the research. _____ 10. The participants in the study must be stated in the statement of the problem. _____ 11. The specific research problems must be in declarative form. _____ 12. The significance of the study justifies the research problem. _____ 13. Research topics must be general and ambiguous. _____ 14. A research title can be in a sentence form. _____ 15. Scope and delimitations include the benefit one can get in the research study.
Republic of the Philippines Department of Education ILOCOS NORTE COLLEGE OF ARTS AND TRADES Laoag City LECTURE IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH I
CHAPTER 3: Learning from Other Studies and Reviewing the Literature
Importance of Related Theories and Concepts A theoretical framework can be thought of as a map or travel plan. At the start of any research, it is important to consider relevant theory underpinning the knowledge base of the phenomenon to be researched. The theoretical framework dwells on time-tested theories that embody the findings of numerous investigations on how phenomena occur. It provides a general representation of relationships between things in each phenomenon. The conceptual framework is the researcher’s idea on how the research problem will have to be explored. It embodies the specific direction by which the research will have to be undertaken. Purpose of the Review of Related Literature and Studies The review of literature and studies involves the critiquing and evaluating of what other researchers have done in relation to the problem to be studied whether these studies affirmed or negate the subject under study. These can be from books, conference proceedings, referred journal and other published articles. Literature may be defined as written works collectively, especially those with enduring importance, exhibiting creative imagination and artistic skill which are written in a period, language, and subject. In other words, any written materials published in book, journal, magazine, novel, poetry, yearbook and encyclopedia are considered literature. The relevance of each literature presented to the present study is also explained thoroughly. The format of a review of literature may vary from discipline to discipline, and from assignment to assignment. Some institutions require the researchers to separate the literature and studies. Others put it together, like international published papers. The review of related studies is equally important to the review of related literature. Published and unpublished research studies such as thesis, dissertation, and research proceedings are sources of materials that are included. Reviewing the literature requires the ability to juggle multiple tasks, from finding and evaluating relevant material to synthesizing information from various sources, from critical thinking to paraphrasing, evaluating, and citation skills. The following are ten simple rules for writing a literature review:
- Define the topic and audience. Several other people may have had the same idea. Thus, topics must be interesting, important and current.
- Search and re-search the literature. Start downloading published articles related to the topic.
- Take notes while reading. This will help you remember the important lines, its author, your impressions and associations while reading. 4. Choose the type of review you wish to write. Some journals are now favoring the publication of rather short reviews focusing on the last few years, with a limit on the number of words and citations.
- Keep the review focused, but make it of broad interest. Arrange the readings according to themes.
- Be critical and consistent. Reviewing the literature is not like arranging hollow blocks. It is very important to have consistency in your review.
- Find a logical structure. The review must worth the reader’s time, timely, systematic, well-written, focused and critical. It also needs a good structure.
- Make use of feedback. Incorporating feedback from reviewers greatly helps improve a review draft.
- Include your own relevant research. In many cases, reviewers of the literature will have published studies relevant to the review they are writing.
- Be up-to-date in your review of literature and studies. Today’s reviews of literature need awareness not just of the overall direction and achievements of a field of inquiry, but also of the latest studies, so as not to become out-of-date before they have been published. What, Where and How to Find Information
3. Book with three to five authors Krause, K. L., Bochner, S. & Duchesne, S. (2006). Educational psychology for learning and teaching (2nd^ ed.). South Melbourne, Vic., Australia: Thomson. First: (Krause, Bochner & Duchesne, 2006) Subsequent citations: (Krause et al., 2006) 4. Book or report by a corporate author e.g. organization, association, government department University of Waikato. (1967). First hall of residence (Information series no. 3). Hamilton, New Zealand: Author. (University of Waikato, 1967) 5. Conference paper online Bochner, S. (1996, November). Mentoring in higher education: Issues to be addressed in developing a mentoring program. Paper presented at the Australian Association for Research in Education Conference, Singapore. Retrieved from http://www.aare.edu.au/96pap/bochs (Bochner, 1996) or According to Bochner (1996) … 6. Journal article (electronic version) with DOI Hohepa, M. & Kolt, G. S. (2006). Physical activity: What do high school students think? Journal of Adolescent Health, 39(3), 328-336. Doi:10.1016/j/jadohealth.2005.12. See what is applicable in 1 to 3 7. Journal article (electronic version) without DOI Harrison, B. & Papa, R. (2005). The development of an indigenous knowledge program in a New Zealand Maori-language immersion school. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 36(1), 57-72. Retrieved from ProQuest Education Journals database See what is applicable in 1 to 3 8. Journal article (print version) Gibbs, M. (2005). The right to development and indigenous peoples: Lessons from New Zealand. Word Development , 33(8), 1365-1378. See what is applicable in 1 to 3 9. Journal article (internet only – no print version) Snell, D. & Hodgetts, D. (n.d.). The psychology of heavy metal communities and white supremacy. Te Kura Kete Aronui, 1. Retrieved from http://www.waikato.ac.nz/wfass/tkka See what is applicable in 1 to 3 10. Magazine article Goodwin, D. K. (2002, February 4). How I caused that story. Time, 159(5), 69. See what is applicable in 1 to 3 11. Newspaper article (print version) Hartevelt, J. (2007, December 20). Boy racers. The Press , p. 3. See what is applicable in 1 to 3 12. Newspaper article with no author Report casts shadow on biofuel crops. (2007, October 16). Waikato Times, p. 21. (“Report Casts Shadow,” 2007) 13. Thesis (institutional or personal webpage) Dewstow, R. A. (2006). Using the Internet to enhance teaching at the University of Wiakato (Master’s thesis, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand). Retrieved from http://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/handle/10289/ See what is applicable in 1 to 3 Research Ethics Scientific writing can be a complex and arduous process, for it simultaneously demands clarity and conciseness; two elements that often clash with each other. The general principle underlying ethical writing the notion that the written work of an author represents an implicit contract between the author of that work and its readers. Ethical writing is clear, accurate, fair and honest. Basic Principles of Ethical Practice The University of Leicester (2010) enumerated basic principles of ethical research practice. Knowing what constitutes ethical research is important for all people who conduct research projects or use and apply results from research findings.
- Obtain informed consent from participants. Informed consent must be given to the research participants before they will be subjected for the research. In the case of minors, parents or guardians must be fully aware of the said activity. For native speakers, informed consent may be translated in their dialect.
- There should be no pressure on individuals to participate. Incentives to take part should generally not be provided. If an incentive is used it needs to be only a token, and not enough to encourage someone to participate who would really prefer not to take part.
- Respect individual autonomy. Autonomy means the freedom to decide what to do. Even when someone has signed the consent form, they must be made aware that they are free to withdraw from the study at any time. They must also be able to request that the data they have given be removed from the study.
- Avoid causing harm. The duty of the researcher is not to cause harm. The researcher must make sure that the principle of voluntary participation is observed in situations where there is interaction with subjects.
- Maintain anonymity and confidentiality. Making data anonymous means removing the contributor’s name. However, you will often need to take more than this basic step to protect a participant’s identity. Other information can help to identify people, for example: job title, age, gender, length of service, membership in clubs, and strongly expressed opinions.
- Take particular care in research with vulnerable groups. Care is clearly needed in research with young children, and with people with disability, or minors. However, others may be vulnerable in certain contexts, for example: students, employees, dependents, or people with particular traits that could be subject to prejudice. Plagiarism It is the most widely recognized and one of the most serious violations of the contract between the reader and the writer. It is the using of someone else’s words or ideas, if you are careless in your note-taking. This can mean that you get mixed up over what is an exact quote, and what you have written in your own words. Research is a public trust that must be ethically conducted and so trustworthy, and socially responsible if the results are to be valid and reliable. Plagiarism has been traditionally defined as the taking of words, images, ideas. Etc. from an author and presenting them as one’s own. Fifteen Ethical Guidelines
- Always acknowledge the contributions of others and the source of his/her ideas.
- Any verbatim text taken from another author must be enclosed quotation marks.
- When you summarize, you condense, in your own words, a substantial amount of material into a short paragraph or perhaps into a sentence.
- When paraphrasing and/or summarizing others’ works, you must reproduce the exact meaning of the other authors’ ideas or facts.
- The author must have a thorough understanding of the ideas and terminology being used in the original text.
- When in doubt as to whether a concept or fact is common knowledge, provide citation.
- Authors are strongly encouraged to become familiar with basic elements of copyright law.
- Authors are strongly urged to double – check in their citations.
- The references used in a paper should only be those that are directly related to its contents.
- Generally, when describing others’ works, do not rely on secondary summaries of those works.
- When appropriate, authors have an ethical responsibility to report evidence that runs contrary to their point of view. In addition, evidence that one uses in support of his/her proposition must be methodologically sound. When citing supporting studies that suffer from methodological, statistical or other types of shortcomings, such flaws must be pointed out to the reader.
- Report the results of the study without any post hoc manipulations.
- Only those who have made substantive contributions to a project merit authorship in a paper.
- Faculty-student collaborations should follow the same criteria to establish authorship.
- Academic or professional ghost authorship in the sciences is unacceptable. Protecting the Intellectual Property in the Philippines Philippine copyright law is enshrined in the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines, officially known as RA no. 8293. The law is partly based on United States copyright law and the principles of the Berne Convention or the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works. Under Philippine law, original intellectual creations in the literary and artistic domain are copyrightable. These include books, pamphlets, articles and other writings, periodicals and newspapers, lectures, sermons, addresses, dissertations prepared for oral delivery, letters, dramatic or dramatic-musical compositions, choreographic works or entertainment in dumb shows, musical compositions, drawing, painting, architecture, sculpture, engraving, lithography, models of designs for works of art; original ornamental designs or models for articles off manufacture; illustrations, maps, plans, sketches, charts and three-dimensional works relative to geography, topography or science; etc.
The creation of quantitative data sets requires the historian to carefully compile consistent information about the phenomenon to be investigated and apply the techniques of statistical data analysis to the data set to answer the research questions. Thus, to make effective use of quantitative evidence and statistical techniques for historical analysis, practitioners have to integrate the developing skills of the social sciences including statistical data analysis and data archiving into their historical work. Sampling Plans, Designs and Techniques Sampling is the process of getting information from a proper subset of population. The fundamental purpose of all sampling plans is to describe the population characteristics through the values obtained from a sample as accurately as possible. A sampling plan is a detailed outline of which measurements will be taken at what times, on which material, in what manner, and by whom that support the purpose of an analysis. Given a population frame, the first question a researcher often asks is the question of sample size. How large a sample must one take in order to be certain that the values calculated from this sample will not be too far from the actual values of the population parameters? The Slovin’s formula may be applied: n = N/(1+Ne 2 ) where N = population size and e = error balance. Sampling Techniques Probability Sampling refers to a sampling technique in which samples are obtained using some objective chance mechanism, thus involving randomization. It is the only approach that makes possible representative sampling plans. It enables the investigator to specify the size of the sample that they will need if they want to have the given degree of certainty that their sample findings do not differ by more than a specified amount from those that a study of a whole population would yield.
- Simple random sampling is a technique in which each member of the sample is selected by the equivalent draw lots. The sample is selected in two ways: by a table of random numbers or by the lottery technique.
- Systematic random sampling uses a list of elements of the population as a sampling frame and the elements to be included in the desired sample are selected by skipping through the list at regular intervals. The starting point to be taken is a random choice. Use the formula k = N/n where k = sampling interval, N = population size and n = number of samples needed.
- Stratified random sampling is a technique in which the population is first divided into strata and then samples are randomly selected separately from each stratum. The number of units drawn from each stratum depends on the ratio of the desired sample in the population (n/N).
- Clustered random sampling is a technique in which the entire population is broken into small groups, or clusters, then some of the clusters are the ones that are analyzed. It is administratively convenient to implement and its main advantage is saving time and money. Non-probability sampling is a technique when there is no way of estimating the probability that each element has of being included in the sample and no assurance that every element has a chance of being included.
- Accidental or convenience sampling is one which the investigator simply reaches out and takes the cases that are at hand, continuing the process until the sample reaches a designated size. This is also known as “the man on the street” interviews conducted frequently by the television news program. The problem here is the lack of evidence that they are the representatives of the population you are interested in generalizing.
- Purposive sampling or judgment sampling is used when practical consideration prevent the use of probability sampling. Data from judgmental samples at best suggest or indicate conclusions but in general they cannot be used as the basis of statistical testing procedures. In purposive sampling, you sample with a purpose in mind.
- Snowball sampling identifies cases of interest from people who know other people who would be a good interview participant. Instrumentation An important part of the research study is the instrument in gathering the data because the quality of research output depends to a large extent on the quality of research instruments used. Instrument is the generic term that researchers use for a measurement device. Researchers can choose the type of instruments to use based on their research questions or objectives. There are two broad categories: research-completed instruments and subject-completed instruments. Researcher – Completed Instruments Subject – Completed Instruments Rating Scales Questionnaires Interview Schedules / Guides Self – Checklists Tally Sheets Attitude scales Flowcharts Personality Inventories
Performance Checklists Achievement / Aptitude Tests Time-and-Motion Logs Projective Devices Observation Forms Sociometric Devices A critical portion of the study is the instrument used to gather data. The validity of the findings and the conclusions resulting from the statistical instruments will depend greatly on the characteristics of your instruments. Validity Validity refers to the extent to which the instrument measures what it intends to measure and performs as it is designed to perform. As a process, validation involves collecting and analyzing data to assess the accuracy of an instrument.
- Content validity: the extent to which a research instrument accurately measures all aspects of a construct.
- Construct validity: the extent to which a research instrument measures the intended construct. For example, if a person has a high score on a survey that measures anxiety does this person truly have a high degree of anxiety?
- Criterion validity: the extent to which a research instrument is related to other instruments that measure the same variables. Reliability Reliability relates to the extent to which the instrument is consistent. The instrument should be able to obtain approximately the same response when applied to respondents who are similarly situated. Likewise, when the instrument is applied at two different points in time, the responses must highly correlate with one another. Sources of Data Data can be collected from two sources: primary sources and secondary sources. Data collected from primary sources are known as primary data and data collected from secondary sources are called secondary data. Primary data are also known as raw data which can be collected from experimental research, observation or questionnaire survey. Secondary data are data obtained from reports, books, journals, magazines, the web, and more. Data Collection Methods Interviews: The use of interview begins with the assumption that the participants’ perspectives are meaningful, knowable and can be made explicit, and that their perspectives affect the success of the project.
- Structured Interview: The researcher asks a standard set of questions and nothing more. The interview follows a specific format with the same line of questioning. The aim of this approach is to ensure that each interview is presented with exactly the same questions in the same order. These are also known as standardized interviews or researcher-administered surveys.
- Face-to-Face Interview: this remains the most frequently used quantitative research method. It has a distinct advantage of enabling the researcher to establish rapport with potential participants and therefore gain their cooperation. This allows the researcher to clarify ambiguous answers and when appropriate, seek follow-up information. Disadvantages include impractical when large samples are involved, time consuming and expensive.
- Telephone Interviews: These are less time consuming and less expensive. The researcher has ready access to anyone who has a telephone. The response rate of this interview is not as high as the face-to-face interview. The sample may be biased to the extent that people without phones are part of the population. Example of this are usage surveys, customer satisfaction surveys, or exploration of the potential for new products or services.
- Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI) is a form of personal interview but instead of completing questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a laptop to enter the information directly into the database. This method saves time involved in processing data. However, this requires that interviewers have typing skills. Questionnaires: This helps extract data from respondents. It serves as a standard guide for the interviewers who need to ask the questions in exactly the same way. Without this standard, questions would be asked in a disorganized way at the discretion of the methodology. There are normally five sections in a questionnaire namely: an introduction, the respondent’s identification data, instruction, classification data and information. Introduction: It is the interviewer’s request for help. It is normally scripted and lays out the credentials of the research company, the purpose of the study and any aspects of confidentiality. Respondent’s Identification Data: This includes the respondent’s name, address and others.
Department of Health, Department of Budget and Management, Commission on Audit and other government agencies and institutions. You can also use data from international sources like World Bank, UNESCO, TIMSS, World Health Organization, etc. Since secondary data have been collected for a different purpose from yours, the basic questions you should ask are: Where do the data come from? Do they cover the correct geographical location? Are they up-to-date or recent? The usefulness of existing sources varies depending on whether they are accessible and accurate. When using such instruments, it is advisable to do a quick scan to assess data quality before undertaking extensive analysis.
