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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Theoretical Review
1. Pragmatics a. Definition of Pragmatics Human language and its context have a close relation. Hence (1993: 42) defines pragmatics is the study of the conditions of human language uses as these are determined by the context of society. Besides, Leech (1983: 6) states that pragmatics is the study of meanings in relation to speech situation. Levinson (1983: 5) defines that pragmatics is the study of language use, that is the study of relation between language and context which is basic to an account of language understanding which involves the making of inferences which will connect what is said to what is mutually assumed or what has been said before. Pragmatics can also solve the problem between the speaker and the hearer, especially the problem about point of view. Leech (1983:36) states that pragmatics involves problem solving both from the speaker’s point of view and from the hearer’s point of view. The problem of speaker’s point of view is how to produce an utterance which will make the result. The wider definition comes from Yule (1996: 3). He states that pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning. Pragmatic is the study of the contextual meaning, the second definition. The third definition, pragmatics is the study of how more
gets communicated than said. The last definition is that pragmatics is the study of expression of relative distance. Yule also says that to understand pragmatics briefly, there is a need to make a relationship with other areas of linguistics. Semantics and syntax can be related to this study. From the explanations above, pragmatics means a study about the relationship between language, meaning and situation. b. Context Context is one of the factors that give an effect to people how they use the language. According to Asher (1994: 731) context is one of those linguistic terms which are constantly used in all kinds of context but never explained. It has the relationship with meaning and they are important in pragmatics. Finnegan et al. (1997: 345) state that the essential element in the interpretation of an utterance is the context in which it is uttered. The context can influence the speaker on how to use the language. Yule (1996: 21) states that context simply means the physical environment in which a word is used. The importance of taking of context into account is also well expressed by Hymes (in Brown and Yule, 1983: 37) who views the role of the context in interpretation as, on the one hand, limiting the range of possible interpretation and, on the other hand, as supporting the intended interpretation: “The use of linguistic form identifies a range of meanings. A context can support a range of the meanings. When a form is used in a context, iteliminates the meaning possible to that context other than those the form can signal: the context eliminates from consideration the meanings possible to the form other than those the context can support.”
on particular occasions. In other words, it can be said as the purpose or the goal of the participants in speech event.
- A (Act Sequence) Act sequence refers to the actual form and content of what is said: the precise words used, how they are used, and the relationship of what is said to the actual topic at the hand.
- K (Key) Key refers to the tone, manner or spirit in which a particular message is conveyed: light-hearted, serious, precise, pedantic, mocking, sarcastic, and so on. The key also be marked nonverbally by certain kinds of behavior, gesture, posture, or even deportment.
- I (Instrumentalities) Instrumentalities refer to the choice of channel, e.g., oral, written, or telegraphic, and to the actual forms of speech employed, such as the language, dialect, code, or register that is chosen. Formal, written, legal language is one instrumentality.
- N (Norms of Interaction and Interpretation) Norms of interaction and interpretation refer to the specific behaviors and properties that attach to speaking and also to how these may be viewed by someone who does not share them, e.g., loudness, silence, gaze return and so on. In other words, the meaning of norms here are the social rules that governs the event and the action and reaction of participants.
- G (Genre) Genre refers to clearly demarcated types of utterances; such things as poems, proverbs, riddles, sermons, prayers, lecture and editorials. Additionally, Holmes (2001: 8) states that in any situation, linguistic choices will generally reflect the influence of one or more of the following components.
- The participant (it relates to people who are speaking and whom they are speaking to).
- The setting or social context of interaction (it relates to a place where people are speaking)
- The topic (it relates to something what is being talked about)
- The function (it relates to people’s reason why they are speaking) b. Cultural or social context Malinowski in Halliday and Hasan (1986: 6) defines context of situation as environment of the text including the verbal and the situational environment in which the text is uttered. The linguistic interaction involves not only the immediate sight and sound surrounding the event but also the whole cultural history that is behind the participants and the kind of practices that they are engaging in.
b) Illocutionary acts Illocutionary act is the function of the words which is uttered by the speaker. Austin (1969: 108) defines illocutionary act as an utterance which has a certain (conventional) force. Leech (1996: 199) also states that illocutionary act is performing the act in saying something. c) Perlocutionary acts Perlocutionary act is the effect of the word for the hearer. Austin (1969: 108) perlocutionary act is the effect of an utterance. It is what people bring about or achieve by saying something such as convincing, persuading, deterring and even say, surprising, misleading. Leech (1996: 199) defines that perlocutionary act is performing the act by saying something. Austin (1969: 150) also distinguished five more general classes of utterance, classified according to the illocutionary force. These are the explanations proposed by Austin (1969: 150-151). a) Verdictives Verdictives are typified by the giving of verdict, as the name implies, by a jury, arbitrator or umpire. However, the need not be final; they may be, for example, an estimation, reckoning or appraisal. It is essential to give a finding to something – fact or value which is for different reasons hard to be certain about.
b) Exercitives Exercitives are exercise of power, right or influence. The examples are appointing, voting, ordering, urging, advising, and warning. c) Commisives Commisives are typified by promising, or otherwise undertaking; they commit the hearer to do something, but include also declaration or announcements of intention, which are not promise, and also rather vague things which can be called as espousal as for example siding with. d) Behabitives Behabitives are very miscellaneous group and have to do with attitudes and social behavior. The examples are apologizing, congratulating, condoling, cursing and challenging. e) Expositives Expositives are difficult to define. They make plain how to utterances fit into the course of an argument or conversation, how words are used or in general are expository. The examples are ‘I assume’, ‘I reply’, and ‘I postulate’. 2) Searle’s classifications of speech act Classification of speech act is also classified by Searle. Searle (1969: 23-
- starts with the notion that when a person speaks, he/she performs three different acts, i.e. utterance acts, propositional acts, and illocutionary acts. Utterance acts consist of simply of uttering strings of words. Propositional acts and illocutionary acts consist characteristically of uttering words in sentences in certain
expresses what the speaker intends. Yule (1996: 54) states that in using commisive, the speaker undertakes to make the world fit the words (via the speaker). For example, “I’ll be back”. In the example, the words have meaning and contain a promise that the speaker will back to that place. d) Expressives The speaker feeling is expressed by this act such as apologizing, praising, congratulating, deploring and regretting. Yule (1996: 53) says that expressives speech act state what the speaker feels. They can be caused by something the speaker or the hearer does, but they are about the speaker’s experience. For example, “Congratulations!”. The meaning is congratulating that is uttered by the speaker to someone. e) Declarations Changing the world through utterances can be expressed from this type. Yule (1996: 53) states that declarations are those kinds of speech acts that change the world via utterance. Declaring two singles to be a married couple, changing a nameless baby into one with name are the examples. For example, “I now pronounce you husband and wife”. The meaning is declaring which a person who utters it is the priest. c. Direct and Indirect of speech act Searle (in Brown and Yule, 1983: 232) introduces a distinction between direct and indirect speech acts. This distinction is made on the basis of recognition of the intended perlocutionary effect of an utterance in particular occasion.
1) Direct speech act Finch (2000: 183) direct speech act is a speech act that has direct connection with the structure used. In a direct speech act, the sentence meaning and speaker’s meaning match with the speaker’s meaning, i.e. the form of the utterance is in accordance with what the speaker is intending to convey. Searle (in Cutting, 2002:
- states that the speakers use direct speech act to communicate the literal meaning that the words conventionally express; there is a direct relationship between the form and the function (declarative, imperative and interrogative). Clark and Clark (1977: 28) note that telling is usually done with declaratives, questioning, with interrogatives are used to question about some states of affair and imperatives are used to request or order something are all direct speech acts. For example, (a) Andrea picks up the phone; (b) Did Andrea pick up the phone?; (c) Pick up the phone, Andrea!. In (a) the speaker asserts that Andrea picks up the phone, in (b) the speaker asks whether or not Andrea picks up the phone, while (c) the speaker requests/commands Andrea to pick up the phone. 2) Indirect speech act Finch (2000: 183) states that indirect speech act occurs when there is an indirect relationship between a surface structure and function and in indirect speech act, the speaker means what the sentence means but something else as well. Searle (in Cutting, 2002: 19) also explains that someone who uses an indirect speech act wants to communicate a different meaning from the apparent surface meaning; the form and function are not directly related (statements, question,
following: request, invitation, offer, suggestion. These are the classification of different types of refusal functions: a. Request Requests for favors entail doing activities that require some time and/or effort on the part of the addressee. Bardovi-Harlig and Hartford (1991) state request strategy depends on specific content and the appropriate form for mitigating the threatening nature of refusals. b. Invitation There are two types of invitation which are ritual invitation and real invitation. The inviter shows his/her willingness of maintaining relationship with the listener in the future which is called as ritual invitation, while the invitation that expresses the addresser’s sincere intention to treat the addressee is called as real invitation. Ritual invitations often occur between acquaintances as a way to show the willingness to maintain relationships with each other. Compared with real invitations, the inviter will not give many details about the invitation. c. Offer According to what is offered, there are four types of offers: gift offer, favor offer, food/drink offer and opportunity offer. d. Suggestion A suggestion occurs when one person uses utterances to propose some actions or at least changes on the part of the addressee. There are two types of suggestions: solicited suggestions and unsolicited suggestions. Solicited
suggestions refer to suggestions needed by the listener. The speaker gives suggestions in response to the listener’s needs. For example, a student asks for advisors’ suggestions about his/her paper. Unsolicited suggestions are suggestions that are voluntarily given by the speaker without the request of the listener. Because unsolicited suggestions often occur between acquaintances, correct choice of the form of address is very important in mitigating the uncomfortable feelings caused by a refusal. This expression includes of speech act especially commisives speech act which the word commits to future action. According to Searle (1977) refusals belong to the category of commisives because they commit the refuter to performing an action. Beebe, Takahashi, and Uliss-Weltz (1990) explain that refusal expression can be expressed directly, indirectly and adjunct. These are the classifications of refusal expression: Direct refusals Indirect refusal Adjunct to refusals Performative Non-performative
Statement of regret Wish Excuse,reason, explanation Statement of alternative Set condition for future or past acceptance Promiseacceptance of future Statement of principle
Statement of positiveopinion/feeling or agreement Statement of empathy Pause fillers Gratitude/appreciation
2. Indirect Refusals a. Statement of regret In the statement of regret, the speaker feels sorry or regret and it can be showed by saying “ I’m sorry…”, “I feel terrible…” b. Wish The speaker uses the statement of wish for refusing by saying “I wish I could help you…” c. Excuse, reason, explanation Commonly, people use this category for refusing which they give reason or explanation. “my children at home…”, “I’m headache…” are the examples. d. Statement of alternative The speaker gives the alternative such as “I’d rather…”, “I’d prefer…” or “why don’t you ask someone else?...” e. Set condition for future or past acceptance In this situation, the speaker gives an opportunity for the hearer by past acceptance in which the hearer does not ask the speaker. It can be shown by saying “if you had asked me earlier, I would have…” f. Promise of future acceptance Promising is another strategy for refusing which can be performed as “I’ll do it next time…”, “I promise I’ll…”, “next time I’ll…”
g. Statement of principle The speakers use their principle for refusing which can be shown by saying “I never do business with friends…” h. Statement of philosophy Saying statement philosophy is one of strategies for refusing indirectly. For example the speaker will say “help one, help all” i. Attempt to dissuade interlocutor In this strategy, the speaker uses:
- Threat or statement of negative consequences to the requester. “I won’t be any fun tonight…” this is the example to refuse an invitation.
- Guilt trip, the example of this situation can be shown on waitress to customers who want to sit a while: “I can’t make a living off people who just order coffee…”
- Criticize the request/requester (statement of negative feeling or opinion; insult/attack. This is the example “who do you think you are?”, “that’s terrible idea!”
- Request for help, empathy, and assistance by dropping or holding the request.
- Let interlocutor off the hook
- Self-defense, it is the example: “ I’m trying my best…”, “I’m doing all I can do…”
d. Gratitude/appreciation Example: “thanks, but…”
4. Politeness The speakers have to know the ways how they are speaking. Wardhaugh (1998: 255) states that people have to make a choice of many different kinds: what they want to say, how they want to say it, and the specific sentence types, words, and sounds. Politeness is one of the ways to employ the expression. To see how to use the politeness in their expression, the speakers can see the face of the hearer. Using politeness is also used to employ the refusal expression. They have to save the hearer’s face because the refusal expression is one of dispreferred responses Saving the hearer’s face is important for the speaker because from the face the speaker will see the hearer’s feeling. Goffman (1967) states that there may be several reasons why people want to save their face. They may have become attached to the value on which this face has been built, they may be enjoying the results and the power that their face has created, or they may be nursing higher social aspirations for which they will need this face. However, face is also called as self-image which face means the public self-image of person (Yule, 1996: 60). Besides, Brown and Levinson (1987: 66) states that face is something that is emotionally invested, and that can be lost, maintained, or enhanced and must be constantly attended to in interaction. It is possible that the speakers give an alternative action to save another’s face which is called as face saving act (Yule, 1996: 61). Yule (p.62) also divides face into two types.
a. Positive face Positive face is the wish that someone wants to be desired by others, by either the speaker or the addressee, or both. A person’s positive face is need to be accepted, even liked by others, treated as the member of some groups and to know that his wants are shared by others. b. Negative face Negative face is the desire not to be imposed upon by others, the need to be independent or to have freedom of action, not impeded or imposed on by others. Yule (1996: 60) gives a definition of politeness that is an interaction to show awareness of another person’s face. From the interaction the speakers have to respect for keeping their public self-image. Based on Brown and Levinson (1987) speakers have to acknowledge and show an awareness of the face, the public self-image, the sense of self, of the people that they address. Yule (1996:
- proposes two kinds of politeness, positive politeness and negative politeness. Similarly, Brown and Levinson, propose some various linguistic devices employed to realize different communication strategies. a. Bald on-record (no effort to minimize threats to the hearer’s face) b. Positive politeness (recognize the hearer’s desire to be respected)
- Claiming common ground (indicate that the speaker and the hearer belong to the some group, have similar needs, etc) a) Attending to the hearer (his/her interests, wants, needs, goods)
