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AUTHOR (^) Grider, Clint
TITLE Foundations of Cognitive Theory: A Concise Review.
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DESCRIPTORS *Cognitive Psychology; *Epistemology; HerMeneutics;
Learning; Piagetian Theory
IDENTIFIERS Chomsky (Noam); *Cognitive Models; Cognitive
Research; Gestalt Psychology; Lewin (Kurt); Piaget
(Jean)
ABSTRACT
Cognitive-learning theories hold a unique place in
history: they explore the depths of the mind from the perspective of
process. This paper discusses the history of cognitive-learning
theories and how they grew to shape the way one perceives, organizes,
stores, and retrieves information. The paper, after providing a
definition and synopsis of cognitive theory and its basic concepts,
turns to the theories' philosophical foundations, beginning with
Plato. The psychological foundations of the functions of the mind,
and the pioneering efforts of the structuralists and Wilhelm Wundt
are discussed. As psychology matured, practitioners like William
James and John Dewey rejected structuralism, believing it to be too
narrow to understand the mind. The mind's mechinisms then underwent
numerous, pivotal shifts in interpretation moving from the Gestalt
viewpoint and its variations, like those introduced by Edward Tolman,
to the role of motivation in learning as expounded by Kurt Lewin, to
Frederic C. Bartlett's concept of schemata, to Jean Piaget's
explications of cognitive growth and development, and finally, to the
refinement of Piaget's theory by Jerome S. Bruner. The paper
concludes with a brief description of the contributions madeby other
disciplines to cognitive understandings suchas those advances made
by the linguist Noam Chomsky, and the powerful impact of the computer
on cognitive psychology. (RJM)
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FoundationsofCognitiveTheory:AConciseReview
Clint Grider
Howdowelearn?Withinpsychologicalthought,cognitivelearningtheorieshave,perhaps,
encompassedthebroadestarrayofmethodologies.Fromphilosophicalrootstoevolving
constructsandproponents,cognitivestrategiesprovideadivergentyetdistinctemphasisonthe
mentalprocessesthatenableindividualstolearnandtouseknowledge.
DefiningTheory
Definition
Thedominantaspectsofcognitivetheoryinvolvetheinteractionbetweenmentalcomponents
andtheinformationthatisprocessedthroughthiscomplexnetwork(Neisser,1967).As
individualslearn,theyactivelycreatecognitivestructureswhichdeterminetheirconceptsofself
andtheenvironment(McEntire,1992).Interestingly,thespecificprocessoflearningisnotthe
primaryareaofconcernincognitiveresearch;instead,learningisviewedasonlyoneofthemany
processescomprisedbythehumanmind(Anderson,1980).Althoughallcognitivetheorists
examinethesefunctionstodiscovermoreabouthumanlearningandbehavior,theyoftendiffer
regardingemphasis.Someapproachesdealwithdetailedanalysesofinformation-processing
skills,whileothersfocusonmentalmodelsorcognitivegrowthanddevelopment(Mayer,1981).
Thus,cognitivepsychologistsdonotadheretoaparticularsetofrulesormethodologiesintheir
research.
BasicConcepts
Cognitivetheoristsbelievethatlearninginvolvestheintegrationofeventsintoanactive
storagesystemcomprisedoforganizationalstructurestermedschemata(Baron&Byrne,1987).
Schemataserveanumberoffunctionsinhumancognition.Inadditiontostoringinformationin
long-termmemory,theyformulateframeworksintowhichnewinformationmustfitinordertobe
understood.Furthermore,schemataregulateattention,organizesearchesoftheenvironment,and
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Meaningfullearningoccurswhenknowledgestoredinlong-termmemoryisshiftedtoshort-
termmemorytointegratenewinformationintothemind(Bell-Gredler,1986).Themostimportant
cognitiveassociationsoccurwhenindividualsrelatestoredknowledgetosensoryinputand
consequentlyencodethestimuliintolong-termmemory(i.e.,newschemata)(Bell-Gredler,1986);
therefore,cognitivelearningemphasizestheinternalmental processesofassociation.Thisconcept
differsfromthebehavioralviewofassociationwhichisbaseduponexternalmotivation.AsBell-
Gredlerstates,"successfullearningdependsonthelearner'sactionsratherthanoneventsinthe
environment"(1986,p.171).
TracingFoundations
PhilosophicalFoundations
Therootsofcognitivetheorycanbetracedtosystemsofancientphilosophythatdateasfar
backas400B.C.Plato'sidealismisbasedonthepremisethatrealityonlyconsists ofspiritand
mind.AccordingtoPlato,theuniverseiscomprisedofgoodandperfect absolutesthatareorderly
andeternal.One'sspiritualessence,orsoul,isalsodurableand permanent.Valuesreflectthe
inherentgoodintheuniverse,andethicalconductgrowsoutofone'smoraleducation.Idealism
holdsthatallknowledgeisinnate;thus,introspectionistheonlymethodofdiscoveringtruth.
Platobelievedthatoneshouldconstantlyexercisethemindbystudying mathematicsandthe
classics(Bell-Gredler,1986).
Descartesandhis17thcenturyphilosophyofrationalismwouldbuild onPlato'sconceptof
innateknowledge.Rationalismholdsthat onedevelopsintellectbystronglycontemplatingafew
innateideas;Descartes'conceptof"Ithink;thereforeIam" demonstratestheemphasisonlogical
thoughtanddeduction.Basedonmathematics,rationalism'smodel formentalgrowthisavast
systemthatrevolvesaroundjustafewaxioms(Bell-Gredler,1986).Theconceptsof
introspection,deduction,andinternalmental processesinthesetwophilosophieswouldlater
influencethetheoreticaldevelopmentofcognitivepsychology.
4
PsychologicalFoundations
EarnestattemptstoexploreandunderstandthefunctionsofthemindbeganinGermanyin
thelate1800s.WilhelmWundt,thefounderofexperimentalpsychology,wasthefirsttoresearch
thecognitivestructuresinvolvedinmentalprocessing(Bell-Gredler,1986).Thoughnot
consideredacognitivetheorist,Wundtformulatedabasisforcognitiveresearchanddevelopment.
Wundt's"physiologicalpsychology"holdsthatthemind'sstructureissimilartotheclassifications
indevelopmentalbiologyandchemistry;justasmatteriscomprisedofatomsandmolecules,sois
themindcomposedofbasic,unchangingelements(Bell-Gredler,1986).
AccordingtoWundt,humanexperiencefirstconsistsofmeasurablementalfunctionssuchas
awareness,reaction;andperception(Blumenthal,1977).Astheexperiencebecomesmore
focusedtotheindividual,mentalorganizationincreasesandtransforms"vagueawarenessinto
clearattention";atthispoint,"creativesynthesis"results(Blumenthal,1977,p.16).Thus,
experiencesatthis"high"levelarefundamentallydistinctfromlowerreactions.Wundtdescribed,
"inessence,aninternalconstructionunderthedirectionofcentralself-controlprocesses"
(Blumenthal,1977,p.16).Thisapproach,latertermedstructuralism,wouldbecomeoneof
psychology'sfirstmajortheories.Wundt'sprincipleswouldeventuallyevolveintothecognitive
conceptsofexecutivemonitorandstructures.
Aspsychologybegantoemergeasanindependentscience,severalAmericansrejected
structuralism.WilliamJamesandJohnDeweybelievedthatWundt'smethodicalanalysisand
classificationofcognitiveelementswastoonarrow(Bell-Gredler,1986).Stronglyinfluencedby
Darwin'stheoryofevolution,Jamesemphasizedthe processofcognitionasitrelatedto
environmentaladaptation(McEntire,1992).Similarly,Deweyfeltthatpsychologyshould
transcendclassificationbyfocusingontheentirescopeofconsciousnessandbehaviorincluding
therelationshipbetweenbiologicaladaptationandtheenvironment(i.e.,psychologyshouldbean
appliedscience)(Bell-Gredler,1986).Thus,whilestructuralismnarrowlyreliesonintrospection
similarstimuli(e.g.,similarshape,color,etc.)together(Hansen,1986).Theseconceptsfurther
illustratetheimpactofperceptiononcognition.
AccordingtoGestalttheory,stimulionlyhavemeaningasthey arecognitivelyorganizedby
theperson.Learningisbasedonchangesintheperceptual process;thus,truelearning,orinsight,
occurswhentheindividualperceivesnewrelationshipswithinthefield(Bell-Gredler,1986).For
example,ifapersondoesnotunderstandhowtouseacertaintool,insightwillnotoccuruntilhe
orshefiguresouttherelationshipbetweenmetoolanditsfunction.Afterthatpointofdiscovery,
hisorherperceptionoftheobjectwillbeconsistentlylinkedtoits usage.Gestaltists'holistic
emphasisonperception,fields,andinsightprovidedthebasisforanumberofcognitiveconcepts,
includingschemata.Thoughbehaviorismbecamethedominant movementduringthenextfew
decades,Gestalttheorywasthetruebeginningofcognitivepsychology.
Duringthe1930s,EdwardTolmancomplementedtheGestaltviewpointwithhisconceptof
purposivebehaviorism.AccordingtoTolman,individualslearnspecificeventsthatresultinthe
satisfactionofparticulargoals.Thus,inthissystem,allbehavioris goal-oriented(Bell-Gredler,
1986).Learninginvolvesone'sexpectationsinagivensituation.Iftheexpectanciesarefulfilled,
thentheyareconfirmedandremainpartofone'sschematicframework. Naturally,one's
perceptionsofasituationgreatlyinfluenceone'sexpectationswithinthatscenario.
InoneofTolman'sintriguingexperiments,threesetsof ratsranamazedailyforseveral
weeks.Thefirstgroup-eceivedfoodattheendofthe mazewhiletheseconddidnot.Thelast
groupreceivednofoodforthefirsttendays,butwasthengiventherewardontheeleventhday.
Thethirdgroup'sperformancesubsequentlyimprovedtotheextentthatitserrorratevirtually
matchedthatofthefirstgroup(Bell-Gredler,1986).Thus,thethird setofratslearnedby
receivingthefood;however,therewardwasnotrequiredforlearningtotakeplace.Thisconcept
oflatentlearningseparatestheprocessoflearningfromperformance (Blumenthal,1977).
Tolman'sviewsharplycontrastsbehaviorallearningtheoriesthat directlylinkstimuluswith
response.Thetheoristeventuallydeterminedthatindividualsdevelopcognitivemapsofthe
environmentthatformulatethebasisforperceptionsandexpectations.Cognitivemapping
involvesthepsychologicalprocessesthatdevelopone'sviewpointsaboutrelativelocationsand
attributesinone'senvironment(Bell-Gredler,1986).Tolman'semphasisonexpectationsin
additiontohisseparationofprocessfromproductcontributedsignificantlytocognitivetheory.
Duringthisperiod,KurtLewintookasomewhatdifferentapproachtocognitivepsychology
byfocusingonaspectsofmotivationinlearning.Inseveralprominentstudies,roterehearsalof
informationresultedinlittleornosuccesswhentheindividualdidnotplantolearnthe
information.Therefore,accordingtoLewin,onelearnsonlywhenonespecificallyintendstodo
so(d'Ydewalle&Lens,1981).Lewindevelopedtheconceptofcognitivestructurestodistinguish
motivationallearningfromothertypesof;earning(Bell-Gredler,1986).Factorssuch asneeds,
motivations,andfuturetimeperspeCtiveinteractwiththesestructures toinstigatethoughtsand
behaviors(d'Ydewalle&Lens,1981).
Lewinfurtherstatedthatcognitivebehavioriscontingentuponone'swholepsychological
environment,whichincludesanumberofpositiveandnegativepsychologicalforces. These
forcesgreatlyaffectone'sreactionstocertainsituations,orlifespaces(Bell-Gredler,1986).
Whentheindividualencountersaregionoflifespacewithtwopositiveforces,theeventistermed
anapproach-approachconflict.Forexample,ifachildweregoingtoaplaygroundwithothers,he
orshewouldgettoplaywiththefriendsinadditiontoenjoyingtherides.Whenbothpositiveand
negativeforcesareexertedinasituation,theconflictiscalledapptoach-avoidance, while
avoidance-avoidanceconflictsresultfromtwonegativeforces(Bell-Gredler, 1986).Individuals
experiencethesecognitiveinfluencesinvirtually everyaspectoflife.
Eventually,Lewinstudiedsocialnormsandcomprehensive groupprocessesasrelatedto
thesefunctions(Baron&Byrne,1987).Hisconceptsofmotivationandpsychologicalforces
formedafoundationuponwhichothertheoristswouldlaterbuild; forexample,BernardWeiner's
andtransformation;theindividualcannot,however,heseparatedfromtheseobjects(Bell-Gredler,
1986).
Duringthisgrowthofintellect,oneformulatesnewmentalstructures(similartoschemata).
Inassimilation,theindividualintegratesnewinformationintotheexisting components.Analogous
tomanybiologicalprocesses(e.g.,digestion),assimilationinvolvesthe"filteringofthestimulus
throughanactionstructuresothatthestructuresarethemselvesenriched"(Bell-Gredler,1986, p.
198).Accommodationoccurswhenone'sinternalstructuresadjusttothediversityof
environmentalstimuli.Manytimes,accommodationresultsinthereorganizationofstructuresas
individualschangetheirwaysofthinking.Topreventfragmentationanddisarraywithincognitive
growth,theactiveprocessofequilibrationregulatesassimilationandaccommodationby
maintainingstabilitywithintheindividual(Bell-Gredler,1986).
Piagetalsoformulatedcognitivelevelsofdevelopment:preoperational,concreteoperations,
andformaloperations(d'Ydewalle&Lens,1981).Inthepreoperational stage(ages2-6),the
childbeginstocreaterelationshipsbetweenhis orherexperiencesandmentalactions.Theworld
isrepresentedthroughtheuseofbasic,generalizedsymbolsandlanguage.Inconcreteoperations
(ages6-10),cognitiveprocessesareusedtomanipulatesymbolsandlanguagethatdirectlyrelateto
concreteobjects.Withintheseoperations,thepersonorganizesinformationforproblem-solving
tasksintheimmediatepresent.Duringtheformaloperations stage(ages10-14),thechildcan
delveintoabstractthinking.Mentaloperationsinvolve anumberofvariablesincludingscientific
reasoningandintrospection(Bruner,1960).Piaget'sdevelopmentaltheory wouldultimatey
becomedistinctfromcognitivepsychology.Still,histhoughtscontributed tocognitivemental
modelswhicharebasedontheconceptthatthemindconstructsmodelsforuseinproblem-
solving,incomplexthought,andintheanticipationofsituations.Manycognitivetheoristswould
continuallybuilduponPiaget'sideasintheirstudies.
JeromeS.Brunerwasonesuchindividual.BrunersupportedPiaget'sfindings regarding
thenatureofknowledgeatdifferentstagesofdevelopment,buthewentontodescribethelevelsof
processinvolvedinthisgrowth.Bruner'sexaminationofsymbolicrepresentationincludesthree
components:enactive,iconic,andsymbolic.Individualsexperiencethesestagesofdevelopment
untiltheymasterallthree(Bruner,1966).Knowledgeintheenactive stageofcognitionis
manifestedthroughone'sactions.Forexample,onecandemonstratehowtorideabicyclequite
easily,butitisextremelydifficulttotellhowitisdone.Theiconiclevel involvesone'svisual
organizationandsummarizationofimages.Inthisstage,thepersoncanrecognizespecificvisual
patternsasrelatedtoparticularsituations.Ofcourse,one'sperceptionofthescenario cangreatly
affecthowonevisualizestheeventorobject.Inthesymbolicstage,experiencesaredescribed
throughsymbolicsystemssuch aslanguage(Bruner,1966).Brunerwentontostressthe
importanceoflanguageinhumancognition.Byusingthese concepts,heformulateda
prescriptive,instructionaltheoryforeffectiveteaching(Bruner, 1966).Bnmer'semphaseson
symbolicsystemsandlanguagebecamekeycomponentsofcognitivepsychology.
ForNoamChomsky,linguistics weretheultimaterepresentationofcognitiveprocesses.In
hisstudies,Chomskyanalyzedfactorsthat wereresponsibleforlhegenerationandcomprehension
oflanguage(Mayer,1981).AccordingtoChomsky,individuals possessinnatestructuresthat
determineauniversallanguage.Thisconcept accountsforthe"spontaneous,uniform,and
complexcharacteroftherulesofsentenceproductionand comprehension(Piattelli-
Palmarini,1980,p.53).Individuals,thus, cancomprehendanunlimitednumberofsentencesthat
arelinguisticallycorrect(i.e.,thatfitintotheuniversallanguage).Chomskyrelates languageto
twotypesofelements:surfacestructuresanddeepstructures(Hayes,1970).Surfacestructures
ofgrammardetermineobviousdetailssuch aswordorderwithinasentence.Forexample,the
sentenceThecatbitthedogisobviouslydifferentfromThedogbitthe catonasuperficiallevel.
Whenexaminingthedeepstructuresofthesesentences,however,theyareactuallyquitesimilarin
Otherproponentsexaminedinformationprocessing fromtheperspectiveoflanguage.For
example,JohnBransfordandJ.J.Franksemphasized theconstructiveprocessofproviding
meaningforsentences.Byconducting sentencerecognitionexperiments,BransfordandFranks
discoveredthatindividualstendtointegrateseparateideasintounifiedrepresentationsofthe
concepts.Thisprocess,inputsynthesis,involvesone's useofinternalknowledgetohelp
formulatemeaningforthesentences.Thus,the learnerconstructsthesepersonalmeaningsbased
onrelevantschemataaswellasontheexternalenvironment (Jones&Idol,1990).
Amonginformationprocessing proponents,AllenNewellandHerbertSimonwerethefirst
toapplyproblem-solvingprocessesdirectly tocomputeroperations.NewellandSimon
comprehensivelyresearched,apalyzed,andtestedproblem-solvingstrategiesintheattempt to
formulateaparallelwithincomputers(Mayer, 1981).Theprocessofstrategizinggenerally
involvesthreesteps.First,theissueispresented totheindividualaspartofaproblem space,
whichincludesthestatedproblem,the givens,andallpossibleoperations.Secondly, theperson
developsspecificgoalsandsubgoalsand beginstosearchforanswerstothesubgoals. Finally,
theindividualemploysmeans-endanalysis inordertoselectivelytestthevarious operations,to
alterorcreatenewsubgoalsifneeded,and toassessprogress(Mayer,1981).Oneonly workson
onesubgoalatattimeinthemethodicalattempttosatisfythe goalswithinthestrategy(Mayer,
1981).Inthelate1960s,Newell'sand Simon'sresearchresultedintheirdevelopment ofthe
monumentalGeneralProblemSolver, acomputerprogramthatsimulatedavarietyofhuman
problem-solvingcapabilities(Bell-Gredler,1986).Thetheoristshadopenedthefloodgatesforthe
explorationofartificialintelligence, aconceptbasedonthepremisethatcomputerscanbe
programmedtothink.Byencouragingdistinct conceptualanalysesofmentalfunctions, Newell's
andSimon'sworkcontributed tocognitiveprocessmodels,whichinvolvetheuseofflowcharts
andprogramstorepresentandpredict problem-solvingstrategies(Mayer,1981).
Conclusion
Cognitivelearningtheorieshold auniquenlaceinhistory--theyexplorethe captivatingdepths
ofthemindfromtheperspectiveof
process.Accordingtothesetheories,one'sabilitytolearn
stemsfromthewayoneperceives, organizes,stores,andretrieves information.Cognitive
approachescanbeappliedto anydiscipline.Primaryemphasesinvolve problem-solvingandthe
facilitationofstorageandretrieval ofinformationforapplication. Theongoingstudyand
enhancementofthese processescanonlybenefitourabilitytolearn moreefficientlyand
effectively.
