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Computer achiecture and organization, Schemes and Mind Maps of Computer science

Computer science

Computer achiecture and organization

Typology: Schemes and Mind Maps

2021/2022

Uploaded on 11/15/2023

ebram-wagdy
ebram-wagdy 🇪🇬

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Lecture 1
Why study computer organization and architecture?
➢Design better programs, including system software such as compilers, operating systems,
and device drivers.
➢Optimize program behavior.
➢Evaluate (benchmark) computer system performance.
➢Understand time, space, and price tradeoffs
Principle of Equivalence of Hardware and Software:
➢Any task done by software can also be done using hardware, and any operation performed
directly by hardware can be done using software. Assuming speed is not a concern.
Computer is a device consisting of three pieces:
➢A processor to interpret and execute programs
➢A memory to store both data and programs
➢A mechanism for transferring data to and from the outside world
Measures of capacity and speed:
✓ Kilo- (K) = 1 thousand = 103 and 2 10
✓ Mega- (M) = 1 million = 106 and 2 20
✓ Giga- (G) = 1 billion = 109 and 2 30
✓ Tera- (T) = 1 trillion = 1012 and 2 40
✓ Peta- (P) = 1 quadrillion = 1015 and 2 50
✓ Exa- (E) = 1 quintillion = 1018 and 2 60
✓ Zetta- (Z) = 1 sextillion = 1021 and 2 70
✓ Yotta- (Y) = 1 septillion = 1024 and 2 80
Hertz = clock cycles per second (frequency)
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Lecture 1 Why study computer organization and architecture? ➢ Design better programs , including system software such as compilers, operating systems, and device drivers. ➢ Optimize program behavior. ➢ Evaluate (benchmark) computer system performance. ➢ Understand time, space, and price tradeoffs Principle of Equivalence of Hardware and Software: ➢Any task done by software can also be done using hardware, and any operation performed directly by hardware can be done using software. Assuming speed is not a concern. Computer is a device consisting of three pieces: ➢A processor to interpret and execute programs ➢A memory to store both data and programs ➢A mechanism for transferring data to and from the outside world Measures of capacity and speed: ✓ Kilo- (K) = 1 thousand = 10^3 and 2 10 ✓ Mega- (M) = 1 million = 10^6 and 2 20 ✓ Giga- (G) = 1 billion = 10^9 and 2 30 ✓ Tera- (T) = 1 trillion = 10^12 and 2 40 ✓ Peta- (P) = 1 quadrillion = 10^15 and 2 50 ✓ Exa- (E) = 1 quintillion = 10^18 and 2 60 ✓ Zetta- (Z) = 1 sextillion = 10^21 and 2 70 ✓ Yotta- (Y) = 1 septillion = 10^24 and 2 80 Hertz = clock cycles per second (frequency)

✓ 1MHz = 1,000,000 Hz ✓ Processor speeds are measured in MHz or GHz. Byte = a unit of storage ✓ 1KB = 2 10 = 1024 Bytes ✓ 1GB = 2 30 = 1,099,511,627,776 Bytes Main memory (RAM) is measured in GB. Disk storage is measured in GB for small systems , TB (2 40 ) for large systems. Measures of time and space: ➢Milli- (m) = 1 thousandth = 10- 3 ➢Micro- () = 1 millionth = 10- 6 ➢Nano- (n) = 1 billionth = 10- 9 ➢Pico- (p) = 1 trillionth = 10- 12 ➢Femto- (f) = 1 quadrillionth = 10- 15 ➢Atto- (a) = 1 quintillionth = 10- 18 ➢Zepto- (z) = 1 sextillionth = 10- 21 ➢Yocto- (y) = 1 septillionth = 10- 2 ➢ Circuits on computer chips are measured in microns. (space) ➢ Main memory access times are often 50 to 70 nanoseconds. (time) Ex: bus operating at 133MHz has a cycle time of 7.52 (1/133,000,000) nanoseconds: 133,000,000 cycles/second = 7.52 ns/cycle

The First Generation : Vacuum Tube Computers The Second Generation : Transistorized Computers The Third Generation : Integrated Circuit Computers The Fourth Generation : VLSI Computers The ENIAC was the first general-purpose computer. Computer manufacturers of The Third Generation were characterized as IBM and the BUNCH (Burroughs, Unisys, NCR, Control Data, and Honeywell). Moore’s Law (1965) ➢ Gordon Moore, Intel founder ➢ “The density of transistors in an integrated circuit will double every year.” ▪ Contemporary version: ➢ “The density of silicon chips doubles every 18 months.” ▪ But this “law” cannot hold forever .. Rock’s Law ➢ Arthur Rock, Intel financier ➢ “The cost of capital equipment to build semiconductors will double every 4 years.” ➢ In 1968, a new chip plant cost about $12, In 2012, a chip plants under construction cost well over $5 billion. For Moore’s Law to hold, Rock’s Law must fall, or vice versa. But no one can say which will give out first.

Lecture 2 The Computer Level Hierarchy:

  • Computers consist of many things besides chips.
  • Computer must use software.
  • Writing complex programs requires a “divide and conquer” approach, where each program module solves a smaller problem.
  • Complex computer systems employ a similar technique through a series of virtual machine layers
  • Each virtual machine layer is an abstraction of the level below it.
  • The machines at each level execute their own instructions, calling upon machines at lower levels to perform tasks as required.
  • Computer circuits ultimately carry out the work**.
  • Level 6:** The User Level – Program execution and user interface level - Level 5: High-Level Language Level – The level with which we write programs in languages such as C, Pascal, Lisp, and Java. - Level 4: Assembly Language Level – Acts upon assembly language produced from Level 5, as well as instructions programmed directly at this level. - Level 3: System Software Level – Controls executing processes on the system. – Protects system resources. – Assembly language instructions often pass-through Level 3 without modification. - Level 2: Machine Level – Also known as the Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) Level. – Consists of instructions that are particular to the architecture of the machine. – Programs written in machine language need no compilers, interpreters, or assemblers. - Level 1: Control Level – A control unit decodes and executes instructions and moves data through the system. – Control units can be microprogrammed or hardwired. – A microprogram is a program written in a low-level language that is implemented by the hardware. – Hardwired control units consist of hardware that directly executes machine instructions.

Fractional values: The quantity ½ is exactly representable in the binary and decimal systems, but is not in the ternary (base 3) numbering system Hexadecimal: A group of four binary digits is called a hextet. Octal: Octal was very useful when computers used six-bit words. Continue Lecture 3 from pdf ….