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D265 Critical Thinking Study guide
questions with answers
Critical Thinking - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ The ability to think carefully about thinking and reasoning/to be critical of your own reasoning. Propositions - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ The fundamental building blocks of arguments. They are a statement that can be true or false. Simple propositions - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ They have no internal logic structure, they are simply true or false based on how the world is. Freedom should be the highest value for its citizens. - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Simple proposition Complex propositions - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ They have internal logic structure, and whether they are true or false depends on if their parts are true or false. If freedom should be the highest value for its citizens, then we should promote it in our laws and policies. - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Complex proposition Argument - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Contains at least two statements or propositions: a conclusion and one or more premises that lend support to the conclusion. Premise - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ A proposition that supports the conclusion. Conclusion Indicators - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Therefore, so, it follows that, hence, thus, entails that, we may conclude that, implies that, wherefore, as a result.
Premise Indicators - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Because, for, given that, in that, as, since, indicated by. Conclusion - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ The claim that the whole argument is intended to support or prove. Deduction - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Arguments where the premises guarantee or necessitate the conclusion. Types of arguments that are deductive - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Mathematical arguments, logical arguments, arguments from definition. Induction - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Arguments where the premises make the conclusion likely to be true. Types of arguments that are inductive/ampliative - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Analogies, authority, casual inferences, scientific reasoning, extrapolations. P1: Monty is in Bejing P2: It is impossible to get here from Bejing in an afternoon Conclusion: Monty won't be at the party - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Deductive argument P1: Monty is really shy P2: Monty rarely goes to parties Conclusion: Monty won't be at the party - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Inductive/ampliative argument Soundness/Validity - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Elements of a deductive argument
C: Therefore, I am in Italy - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Modus Ponens (Affirming the Antecedent) Affirming the Consequent basic structure - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ P1. If X, then Y P2. Y C: Therefore, X Commits Formal Fallacy P1. If I am in Rome, then I'm in Italy. P2. I am in Italy. C: Therefore, I am in Rome - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Affirming the Consequent Modus Tollens (Denying the Consequent) basic structure - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ P1. If X, then Y P2. Not Y C: Therefore, not X No Formal Fallacy P1. If I'm in Rome, then I'm in Italy P2. I am not in Italy C: Therefore, I am not in Rome - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Modus Tollens (Denying the Consequent) Denying the Antecedent basic structure - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ P1. If X, then Y P2. Not X C: Therefore, not Y
Commits Formal Fallacy P1. If I'm in Rome, then I'm in Italy P2. I am not in Rome C: Therefore, I am not in Italy - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Denying the Antecedent Begging the Question/Circular Reasoning - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ An argument where the premise restates the conclusion instead of supporting it. Arguing in a circle. P1. The Earth is ball-shaped C: Therefore, the Earth is a sphere - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Begging the Question (Informal Fallacy) The Fallacy Fallacy - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Occurs when the fact that a fallacy has been committed is used to justify rejecting someone's conclusion. They have committed the fallacy of begging the question, therefore we should reject their conclusion. - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ The Fallacy Fallacy Bias - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Supporting a particular conclusion regardless of the evidence The Principle of Charity - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Interpreting a speaker's reasoning in the best possible light. This makes their position as strong and defensible as possible. Shae said, "It seems that the Earth is flat." Shae must mean that the Earth looks flat to observers on the ground even though our planet is really round. - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ The Principle of Charity
A true random sample - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ The way individuals were put into the sample was done using random methods that were not biased in favor of any particular subgroup. A true representative sample - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Individuals in the sample are varied enough to give a good idea of all beliefs and ideas. Statistics can be __________ very easily. - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ manipulated Selection bias - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ This bias occurs when the sample from which it is generalized is not representative of the general population. A report concludes that people who drive red cars get more speeding tickets than people who drive other color cars. Based on this report, an individual concludes that red cars encourage people to drive fast. Which bias does this conclusion illustrate? - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Selection bias A young person is wearing a tie-dyed shirt and driving a Volkswagen (VW) bus. Based on this, another individual concludes that this person has liberal political views. Which bias does this reasoning reflect? - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Representative Bias When asked how likely it is for an urban cyclist to get in an accident, a survey respondent remembered that their friend got into a cycling accident last week. This makes them conclude that cycling accidents are fairly likely. Which bias does this best represent? - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Availability Bias What kind of actions can strong critical thinkers take to minimize bias in their thinking? - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Broaden sources of information and slow their thought processes. An individual does not believe the moon landing ever occurred. She claims there are plenty of internet postings that agree with this idea, and while photos, documentation, witness accounts, and physical evidence of a moon landing may
exist, these are all things that can easily be manufactured by the government, which cannot be trusted. Which argumentation bias does this passage illustrate? - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Confirmation Bias System 1 thinking: - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ quick, automatic, and emotional System 2 thinking: - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ deliberate, effortful, and calculating The Ad Hominem Fallacy - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ When someone attacks the arguer instead of the argument. The Genetic Fallacy - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ When someone critiques the origin of a claim rather than the claim or argument itself. The Straw Figure/Straw man Fallacy - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ When someone willfully or mistakenly misinterprets someone else's argument or position. They often interpret their opponents position to make it indefensible. A Red Herring - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ A distraction. When someone intentionally or unintentionally changes the subject entirely when an arguer doesn't want to answer a question. This distraction is not used as an answer, but just as a different subject entirely. An Irrelevant Appeal - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Any kind of appeal to a factor, consideration, or reason that isn't relevant to the argument at hand. It is used as a reason/answer to the question rather than a distraction. Appeal to Authority Fallacy - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ When we trust an authority on one subject to speak on a different subject they don't have expertise in. Appeal to Force Fallacy - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ When a threat is used as a justification for the claim in an argument.
after their administrations tends to be pinned on them. - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Post Hoc Fallacy The Fallacy of Hasty Generalization - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ When one jumps to a conclusion about a group of people, things, or events, but does so too quickly and without enough evidence or with too small a sample. Suppose Jones believes that every morning that he steps out of his house with his right foot first, he will have a good day. Jones believes this because last Tuesday morning he stepped out of his house with his right foot first. Later in the day, he received a raise at work, his friends took him to lunch, and he won $500 in the lottery. Which fallacy did Jones commit? - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ Post Hoc Fallacy The Fallacy of "Burden Shifting" - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ When one decides that someone else must prove them wrong when they are the one with the burden of proof, as in they should prove themselves right. The False Dilemma Fallacy - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ When someone assumes that only two options are available for consideration when there are actually more. Suppose a person argues that one and only one of two options is true. However, there are more than two options. In other words, the argument looks like this: Either p is true or q is true. Q is not true. Therefore, p is true. However, there is a third option, r. - ** VERIFIED ANSWERS ** โโ The False Dilemma Fallacy
