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WGU D265 Critical Thinking Exam Questions
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PROPOSITIONS - ✅✅Are statements that can be true or false Ex. Snow is a white. NON-PROPOSITONS - ✅✅Are sentences that do not make a claim that can be true or false. Ex. Close the door SIMPLE PROPOSITIONS - ✅✅They are simply true or false on their own. (Example: Harry Potter wears glasses. The sky is blue.) COMPLEX PROPOSITIONS - ✅✅Are composed of simple propositions. Whether they are true or false depends on whether their parts are true or false. (Example: The sky is blue, but it does not look blue to me right now. The cat ate the food, but he did not like it. The GDP of Canada is either $3 trillion or $12 trillion.) Words used to identify (single)Independent Propositions in a sentence/statement
- ✅✅AND, OR, EITHER, BUT, IF, THEN. Argument - ✅✅A statement put forth and supported by evidence. (premises and conclusion
PREMISE INDICATORS (Argument) - ✅✅BECAUSE, FOR, GIVEN THAT, AS, SINCE, AS INDICATED BY. CONCLUSION INDICATORS(Argument) - ✅✅THEREFORE, SO, IT FOLLOWS THAT, HENCE, THUS, ENTAILS THAT, WE MAY CONCLUDE THAT, IMPLIES THAT, WHEREFORE, AND AS A RESULT. DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS - ✅✅establishes a conclusion to be true by stating two or more true premises that lead to the conclusion being true Ex If A and B are true, then C must also be true INDUCTION ARGUMENTS - ✅✅Arguments where the premises make the conclusion probable.
- analogies, authority, causal inferences, extrapolations, etc. INFERENCE TO THE BEST EXPLANATION OR ABDUCTION - ✅✅Arguments where the best available explanation is chosen as the correct explanation. FORMAL FALLACY - ✅✅Error in the structure or the argument Argument where the conclusions do not follow from the premises. When it's not raining the road is not slippery. INFORMAL FALLACY - ✅✅Argument where the content of the premises is false Concerns the informational content of an argument.
Which of the following are reasons for applying the principle of charity? - ✅✅It is morally right to give others the benefit of the doubt. It allows for a clearer understanding of the issue. CONFIRMATION BIAS - ✅✅the tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one's existing beliefs or theories. Smith is committed to the belief that technological advancement is always beneficial and thus never detrimental to human life. Smith reads a carefully written and sufficiently argued essay in which the author contends that the human adoption of any new technology involves both advantages and disadvantages to its adopters. Since Smith is a loyal technophile, Smith accepts the author's claims about the advantages of technology but rejects the author's claims about the disadvantages of technology. - ✅✅Confirmation Bias COGNITIVE BIAS - ✅✅a systematic thought process caused by the tendency of the human brain to simplify information processing through a filter of personal experience and preferences. Coping mechanism HEURISTICS - ✅✅are practical rules of thumb that manifest as mental shortcuts in judgment and decision-making. Which sentence reflects strong critical thinking? - ✅✅"In any event, our purpose is to better understand the relevant issues so that we may make an informed decision on the topic."
Since inflation is rising rapidly, and because we are approaching the point at which reversal is not possible, it follows that we need to institute a new economic policy, and we need to act quickly.Which two statements contain premises of the given argument? - ✅✅We are approaching the point at which reversal is not possible. & Inflation is rising rapidly. "Products manufactured in our country are the best because we make the best automobiles," declared Kennedy. Which two descriptors best characterize Kennedy's comments? - ✅✅An inference & A weak argument & A proposition Which two sentences are propositions? - ✅✅Lending helps stimulate capital investment. & A strong economy is vital to national security. I have grown bored since last week. Which descriptor accurately characterizes this sentence? - ✅✅Proposition People should pay their taxes since paying taxes is the right thing to do. Which type of logic error is this an example of? - ✅✅Begging the question One should not speed because speeding is wrong.Which type of logic error is this an example of? - ✅✅Begging the question My opponent argues that kangaroos can hop because hopping is something that kangaroos are able to do. Since my opponent has committed the fallacy of begging the question, one must infer that their conclusion is false, and that kangaroos cannot hop. Which type of logic error is this an example of? - ✅✅The fallacy fallacy
Which two characterizations are most accurate regarding the credibility of information sources? - ✅✅The credibility of sources spans a spectrum. & Sources may lack credibility for a variety of reasons. Why is identifying the author essential in determining a source's credibility? - ✅✅It helps to determine if the author has relevant expertise. What is a logical step for critical thinkers to take if they are uncertain about the reliability of a source? - ✅✅Verify the reliability of a source by cross- referencing with additional source materials. Which statement represents a logical reaction to a source claiming to be free from bias? - ✅✅"This can't be true because all sources contain bias." How could podcasts, newscasts, and talk radio be less biased? - ✅✅By featuring experts who offer contrary viewpoints What are two ways in which the internet has complicated a critical thinking approach to finding reliable sources? - ✅✅Sources are more easily located yet not consistently credible. & Sources are more easily located but still need to be verified. Which factor should people focus on when evaluating internet-based information sources for credibility? - ✅✅Content
Why should people read other articles published by the same source when they locate an article of interest on the internet? - ✅✅To determine whether the source publishes sensationalized or overtly biased stories A person encounters an internet source with a headline of "This is NOT a hoax!" Which conclusion would be reasonable for this person to make? - ✅✅The content is sensationalized. For which two reasons do critical thinkers follow the principle of charity? - ✅✅To discover the truth & To present a more convincing argument Which two descriptions accurately characterize the nature of human beliefs? - ✅✅Subject to bias & Sometimes irrational Why can heuristics be advantageous? - ✅✅They enable individuals to make quick decisions. An individual read a report that professional athletes spend an average of thirty hours per week exercising at the gym. Based on this report, the individual concludes that people who belong to a gym spend an average of thirty hours per week exercising. Which concept does this conclusion illustrate? - ✅✅Selection bias & Anchoring Quinn favors strict industry regulations. Robin disagrees because they would increase costs for many businesses and stifle the economy. Robin does, however, understand and acknowledge that industrial operations have environmental and social impacts and that regulatory measures may help prevent unnecessary harm. Which argumentation concept does this passage illustrate? - ✅✅The principle of charity & Heuristics
Based on this information, what can this person reasonably conclude? - ✅✅Algorithms may be linking him with like-minded information. 95% of American citizens are billionaires. Sam is an American citizen. Therefore, Sam is a billionaire. Which set of terms classify this argument? - ✅✅Valid and unsound & Strong and uncogent A person is considering what transportation to use when visiting a friend in a different city. The first thing that comes to mind is a recent news story about a train crash. They decide that the train is not a safe travel option. What kind of bias are they exhibiting? - ✅✅Availability bias "Peyton is an excellent dentist, so she sings well." Which statement represents the hidden assumption that would make this argument valid? - ✅✅All excellent dentists sing well. Which argument contains the general-specific pattern? - ✅✅Dogs are a subspecies of a wolf and collie is a breed of dog, so collies are wolves. Ren is an excellent barista, so he is a master chess player. Which statement represents the hidden assumption that would best complete this argument? - ✅✅Ren is very analytical. & Anyone who is an excellent barista must be a master chess player. Traces of ammonia have been found in Mars' atmosphere. So there must be life on Mars.Which statement summarizes the hidden assumption in the given argument? - ✅✅Only living things produce ammonia.
"All dogs have four legs. Grover is a dog, because Grover barks like a dog. So Grover has four legs." Which statement represents indirect support? - ✅✅Grover barks like a dog. "If magicians can pull rabbits out of hats, then magic is real. Magicians can pull rabbits out of hats. Therefore, I know that magic is real." Which two statements represent conjoint support when mapping this example to a body of propositions? - ✅✅If magicians can pull rabbits out of hats, then magic is real. & Magicians can pull rabbits out of hats. Which two sentences reflect strong critical thinking? - ✅✅My opponent's position is contrary to mine; my opponent, however, raises some good questions. & I am unsure of the answer; I will need to research the issue further. Which two statements best characterize the following argument?"Coffee has caffeine; therefore, it has stimulating effects." - ✅✅The argument includes a single premise. & The argument includes a single conclusion. "There are not any good seafood restaurants in this city. I tried two, and they were both terrible." Which fallacy of weak induction best describes this example?
- ✅✅Hasty generalization A flight attendant accidentally spills a drink on a passenger. The passenger tells a friend that the flight attendants for the airline are incompetent.Which fallacy of weak induction best describes this example? - ✅✅Hasty generalization A teacher talks with a student about failing to turn in homework. The student replies by expressing a desire to dress up as a superhero for Halloween. Which response best matches this fallacy of relevance? - ✅✅Red herring
Slippery slope fallacy - ✅✅A slippery slope fallacy occurs when someone makes a claim about a series of events that would lead to one major event, usually a bad event. In this fallacy, a person makes a claim that one event leads to another event and so on until we come to some awful conclusion. post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy - ✅✅Post hoc ergo propter hoc is an informal fallacy that states: "Since event Y followed event X, event Y must have been caused by event X." It is often shortened simply to post hoc fallacy Shifting the burden of proof fallacy - ✅✅Shifting the burden of proof, a special case of argumentum ad ignorantium, is the fallacy of putting the burden of proof on the person who denies or questions the assertion being made. The source of the fallacy is the assumption that something is true unless proven otherwise. EX: One example of the burden of proof fallacy is someone who claims that ghosts exists, but doesn't prove this, and instead shifts the burden of proof to others, by stating that anyone who disagrees should prove ghosts don't exist. Confirmation bias - ✅✅Confirmation bias is the tendency of people to favor information that confirms their existing beliefs or hypotheses. Confirmation bias happens when a person gives more weight to evidence that confirms their beliefs and undervalues evidence that could disprove it. Anchoring bias - ✅✅Anchoring bias is a cognitive bias that causes us to rely too heavily on the first piece of information we are given about a topic. When we are setting plans or making estimates about something, we interpret newer information from the reference point of our anchor, instead of seeing it objectively.
selection bias - ✅✅Selection bias is a distortion in a measure of association (such as a risk ratio) due to a sample selection that does not accurately reflect the target population. EX: Selection bias also occurs when people volunteer for a study. Those who choose to join (i.e. who self-select into the study) may share a characteristic that makes them different from non-participants from the get-go sound argument - ✅✅Soundness: An argument is sound if it meets these two criteria: (1) It is valid. (2) Its premises are true. valid argument - ✅✅A valid argument is an argument in which the conclusion must be true whenever the hypotheses are true. EX: "It rains only if I carry an umbrella" can be rewritten as "If it rains, then I carry an umbrella." "All citizens of Egypt speak Arabic." can be rewritten as "If someone is a citizen of Egypt, then they speak Arabic." unsound argument - ✅✅An unsound argument is either an invalid argument or a valid argument with at least one false premise. EX: All dogs are mammals. Therefore, dogs are cows. The above argument contains true premises, but it is invalid since the conclusion doesn't logically follow from the premises. Therefore, it is also an unsound argument. strong argument - ✅✅A strong argument is a non-deductive argument that succeeds in providing probable, but not conclusive, logical support for its conclusion. cogent argument - ✅✅A cogent argument is an inductive argument that is both strong and all of its premises are true.
Principle of Charity - ✅✅we should choose the reconstructed argument that gives the benefit of the doubt to the person presenting the argument the fallacy fallacy - ✅✅is a logical fallacy that occurs when someone assumes that if an argument contains a logical fallacy, then its conclusion must be false. Inference - ✅✅A conclusion one can draw from the presented details. EX: "if there is a storm, then the office is closed." means "if the office is closed, then I don't go to work." weak argument - ✅✅a non-deductive argument that fails to provide probable support for its conclusion.
