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METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
Defining ‘research data’ is challenging. This is because there is not a consensus on the definition, it varies according to discipline and the research funder. Research data, unlike other types of information, is collected, observed, or created, for purposes of analysis to produce original research results.
However, Research data may be defined as recorded factual material commonly retained by and accepted in the scientific community as necessary to validate research findings.
Data may be categorized as primary and secondary data.
- Primary Data Primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in character.
- The secondary Data
Secondary data are those which have already been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process. Data collection is a process of collecting information from all the relevant sources to find answers to the research problem, test the hypothesis and evaluate the outcomes. The methods of collecting primary and secondary data differ since primary data are to be originally collected, while in case of secondary data the nature of data collection work is merely that of compilation. However, methods of collecting data in research can be divided into the following:
- Secondary methods of data collection. For example, documents such as government publications, earlier research, personal records etc; and
- Primary methods of data collection. For example, observations, interviews and questionnaires.
Factors that may determine the choice of data collection methods are:
- The purpose of the study,
- The resources available,
- The skills of the researcher,
- The socioeconomic–demographic characteristics of the study population (educational level, age structure, socioeconomic status and ethnic background), and
- Purpose and relevance of the study.
Collection of data using primary methods
Observation is a purposeful, systematic and selective way of watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes place. There are many situations in which observation is the most appropriate method of data collection; for example,
- When you want to learn about the interaction in a group, study the dietary patterns of a population, ascertain the functions performed by a worker, or study the behaviour or personality traits of an individual.
- Where full and/or accurate information cannot be elicited by questioning, because respondents either are not co-operative or are unaware of the answers because it is difficult for them to detach themselves from the interaction.
In summary, when you are more interested in the behaviour than in the perceptions of individuals, or when subjects are so involved in the interaction that they are unable to provide objective information about it, observation is the best approach to collect the required information.
The main advantages of this method are:
- The subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately.
- The information obtained under this method relates to what is currently happening; it is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes.
- This method is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be the case in the interview or the questionnaire method. This method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other.
Limitations of Observation
- It is an expensive method.
- The information provided by this method is very limited.
- Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task. At times, the fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for this method to collect data effectively.
- Change of behaviour, when a change in the behaviour of persons or groups is attributed to their being observed it is known as the Hawthorne effect. The use of observation in such a situation may introduce distortion: what is observed may not represent their normal behaviour.
There are many ways of recording observations. The selection of a method of recording depends upon the purpose of the observation. The way an observation is recorded also determines whether it is a quantitative or qualitative study. Narrative and descriptive recording is mainly used in qualitative research but if you are doing a quantitative study you would record an observation in categorical form or on a numerical scale.
THE INTERVIEW
- According to Monette et al. (1986: 156), ‘an interview involves an interviewer reading questions to respondents and recording their answers’.
- According to Burns (1997: 329), ‘an interview is a verbal interchange, often face to face, though the telephone may be used, in which an interviewer tries to elicit information, beliefs or opinions from another person’.
- Any person-to-person interaction, either face to face or otherwise, between two or more individuals with a specific purpose in mind is called an interview.
Types of interview
Unstructured Interviews
Unstructured interviews are characterised by a flexibility of approach to questioning. Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardised techniques of recording information. In a non-structured interview, the interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask, in case of need, supplementary questions or at times he may omit certain questions if the situation so requires.
Structured interview
This is where the researcher asks a predetermined set of questions, using the same wording and order of questions as specified in the interview schedule. An interview schedule is a written list of questions, open ended or closed, prepared for use by an interviewer in a person-to-person interaction (this may be face to face, by telephone or by other electronic media). Note that an interview schedule is a research tool/instrument for collecting data, whereas interviewing is a method of data collection.
Focused interview
This is interview that is focused attention on the given experience of the respondent and its effects. Under it the interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and sequence in which the questions would be asked and has also the freedom to explore reasons and motives. The main task of the interviewer in case of a focused interview is to confine the respondent to a discussion of issues with which he seeks conversance.
The clinical interview
This is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of individual’s life experience. The method of eliciting information under it is generally left to the interviewer’s discretion.
Non-directive interview
The interviewer’s function is simply to encourage the respondent to talk about the given topic with a bare minimum of direct questioning. The interviewer often acts as a catalyst to a comprehensive expression of the respondents’ feelings and beliefs and of the frame of reference within which such feelings and beliefs take on personal significance.
Personal interviews
Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons.
Advantages of the Interview method of data collection
- More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.
- Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the respondents; the interview method can be made to yield an almost perfect sample of the general population.
- There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure questions is always there, specially in case of unstructured interviews.
- Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers to various questions.
- Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method.
- Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the missing returns; non-response generally remains very low.
- The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the questions. This is not possible in mailed questionnaire approach. If so desired, group discussions may also be held.
- The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may secure the most spontaneous reactions than would be the case if mailed questionnaire is used.
- The language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or educational level of the person interviewed and as such misinterpretations concerning questions can be avoided.
- The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent’s personal characteristics and environment which is often of great value in interpreting results.
Weaknesses of the interview method.
- It is a very expensive method, specially when large and widely spread geographical sample is taken.
- (^) There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the respondent; there also remains the headache of supervision and control of interviewers.
A questionnaire is a written list of questions, the answers to which are recorded by respondents. In a questionnaire respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then write down the answers. The only difference between an interview schedule and a questionnaire is that in the former it is the interviewer who asks the questions (and if necessary, explains them) and records the respondent’s replies on an interview schedule, and in the latter replies are recorded by the respondents themselves.
This distinction is important in accounting for the respective strengths and weaknesses of the two methods.
In the case of a questionnaire, as there is no one to explain the meaning of questions to respondents, it is important that the questions are clear and easy to understand. Also, the layout of a questionnaire should be such that it is easy to read and pleasant to the eye, and the sequence of questions should be easy to follow. A questionnaire should be developed in an interactive style.
This means respondents should feel as if someone is talking to them. In a questionnaire, a sensitive question or a question that respondents may feel hesitant about answering should be prefaced by an interactive statement explaining the relevance of the question. It is a good idea to use a different font for these statements to distinguish them from the actual questions. Examples in Figures 9.4 and 9.5 taken from two surveys recently carried out by the author with the help of two students explain some of the above points.
The questionnaire can be administered in the following ways:
- The mailed questionnaire – The most common approach to collecting information is to send the questionnaire to prospective respondents by mail. Obviously this approach presupposes that you have access to their addresses. Usually it is a good idea to send a prepaid, self-addressed envelope with the questionnaire as this might increase the response rate. A mailed questionnaire must be accompanied by a covering letter (see below for details). One of the major problems with this method is the low response rate. In the case of an extremely low response rate, the findings have very limited applicability to the population studied.
- Collective administration – One of the best ways of administering a questionnaire is to obtain a captive audience such as students in a classroom, people attending a function, participants in a programme or people assembled in one place. This ensures a very high response rate as you will find few people refuse to participate in your study. Also, as you have personal contact with the study population, you can explain the purpose, relevance and importance of the study and can clarify any questions that respondents may have. The author’s advice is that if you have a captive audience for your study, don’t miss the opportunity – it is the quickest way of collecting data, ensures a very high response rate and saves you money on postage.
- Administration in a public place – Sometimes you can administer a questionnaire in a public place such as a shopping centre, health centre, hospital, school or pub. Of course
this depends upon the type of study population you are looking for and where it is likely to be found. Usually the purpose of the study is explained to potential respondents as they approach and their participation in the study is requested. Apart from being slightly more time consuming, this method has all the advantages of administering a questionnaire collectively.
Advantages of a questionnaire
A questionnaire has several advantages:
- It is less expensive. As you do not interview respondents, you save time, and human and financial resources. The use of a questionnaire, therefore, is comparatively convenient and inexpensive.
- Particularly when it is administered collectively to a study population, it is an extremely inexpensive method of data collection.
- (^) It offers greater anonymity. As there is no face-to-face interaction between respondents and interviewer, this method provides greater anonymity. In some situations where sensitive questions are asked it helps to increase the likelihood of obtaining accurate information.
Disadvantages of a questionnaire
- Although a questionnaire has several disadvantages, it is important to note that not all data collection using this method has these disadvantages. The prevalence of a disadvantage depends on a number of factors, but you need to be aware of them to understand their possible bearing on the quality of the data.
These are:
Application is limited. One main disadvantage is that application is limited to a study population that can read and write. It cannot be used on a population that is illiterate, very young, very old or handicapped.
Response rate is low. Questionnaires are notorious for their low response rates; that is, people fail to return them. If you plan to use a questionnaire, keep in mind that because not everyone will return their questionnaire, your sample size will in effect be reduced.
The response rate depends upon a number of factors:
- The interest of the sample in the topic of the study ;
- The layout and length of the questionnaire;
- The quality of the letter explaining the purpose and relevance of the study; and
- (^) The methodology used to deliver the questionnaire. You should consider yourself lucky to obtain a 50 per cent response rate and sometimes it may be as low as 20 per cent. However, as mentioned, the response rate is not a problem when a questionnaire is administered in a collective situation.
When deciding whether to use open-ended or closed questions to obtain information about a variable, visualise how you plan to use the information generated. This is important because the way you frame your questions determines the unit of measurement which could be used to classify the responses. The unit of measurement in turn dictates what statistical procedures can be applied to the data and the way the information can be analysed and displayed.
Advantages and disadvantages of open-ended questions
Open-ended questions provide in-depth information if used in an interview by an experienced interviewer. In a questionnaire, open-ended questions can provide a wealth of information provided respondents feel comfortable about expressing their opinions and are fluent in the language used.
On the other hand, analysis of open-ended questions is more difficult. The researcher usually needs to go through another process – content analysis – in order to classify the data.
In a questionnaire, open-ended questions provide respondents with the opportunity to express themselves freely, resulting in a greater variety of information. Thus respondents are not ‘conditioned’ by having to select answers from a list. The disadvantage of free choice is that, in a questionnaire, some respondents may not be able to express themselves, and so information can be lost.
As open-ended questions allow respondents to express themselves freely, they virtually eliminate the possibility of investigator bias (investigator bias is introduced through the response pattern presented to respondents). On the other hand, there is a greater chance of interviewer bias in openended questions.
Advantages and disadvantages of closed questions
One of the main disadvantages of closed questions is that the information obtained through them lacks depth and variety.
There is a greater possibility of investigator bias because the researcher may list only the response patterns that s/he is interested in or those that come to mind. Even if the category of ‘other’ is offered, most people will usually select from the given responses, and so the findings may still reflect researcher bias.
In a questionnaire, the given response pattern for a question could condition the thinking of respondents, and so the answers provided may not truly reflect respondents’ opinions. Rather, they may reflect the extent of agreement or disagreement with the researcher’s opinion or analysis of a situation.
The ease of answering a ready-made list of responses may create a tendency among some respondents and interviewers to tick a category or categories without thinking through the issue.
Closed questions, because they provide ‘ready-made’ categories within which respondents reply to the questions asked by the researcher, help to ensure that the information needed by the researcher is obtained and the responses are also easier to analyse.
