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National Institute Of Public Administration – Outreach Division
About this Development Administration Module
The Development Administration Module has been produced by National Institute of Public Administration (NIPA). All modules produced by the Institute are structured in the same way, as outlined below.
How this Module Development Administration is structured
The Module overview
The module overview gives you a general introduction to the module. Information contained in the module overview will help you determine: ▪ What you can expect from the course. ▪ How much time you will need to invest to complete the course. The overview also provides guidance on: ▪ Study skills. ▪ Where to get help. ▪ Assignments and assessments ▪ Activity icons ▪ Units. We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before starting your study.
The Module content
The Module is broken down into 7 units. Each unit comprises: ▪ An introduction to the unit content. ▪ Unit outcomes. ▪ New terminology. ▪ Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities. ▪ A unit summary. ▪ Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable. For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with a list of additional resources at the end of this Development Administration module; these may be books, articles or web sites. Your comments After completing this Development Administration module, we would appreciate it if you would take a few moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this course. Your feedback might include comments on: ▪ Content and structure. ▪ Reading materials and resources. ▪ Assignments and Assessments. ▪ Duration. ▪ Support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.) Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this course.
National Institute Of Public Administration – Outreach Division
Welcome to Development Administration Module
This Development Administration Module gives an in-depth knowledge of the
Module learning outcomes
Upon completion of this Module, you will be able to: ▪ Sharpen your diagnostic skills in understanding problems of underdevelopment and developmental change ▪ Gain a broad understanding of the politico- administrative aspects of development.
Time Frame
Study skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that of your school days: you will choose what you want to study, you will have professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or domestic responsibilities. Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related to time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will also need to reacquaint yourself in other areas such as essay planning, coping with exams and using the web as a learning resource. Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage in that learning. We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-study—to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links are: ▪ http://www.how-to-study.com/ The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources. You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a good study place), taking notes, Expected duration of this Module is 6 months Formal study time required is 4 weeks before the beginning of the semester Self-study time recommended is 4 hours per week
National Institute Of Public Administration – Outreach Division Assignments
Assessments
There shall be a minimum of two (02) assessments given to the students undertaking this subject These assessments shall be teacher marked assessments. The assessments shall be determined and given by the course tutors after you have covered a number of topics The teacher/tutor shall ensure that the assessments are marked and dispatched to the student within a period of two weeks. There shall be two assignments given for this module. The assignments should be sent by post or email them to the Outreach Programmes Division – Nigeria Hall using the addresses provided in the training manual. Assignments should be submitted to Outreach Programmes Division Registry.
National Institute Of Public Administration – Outreach Division
Getting around the Development Administration Module
Margin icons
While working through this Development Administration module, you will notice the frequent use of margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text, a new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you to find your way around this module. A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study. Activity Assessment Assignment Case study Discussion Group activity Help Note it! Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills Summary Terminology Time Tip
National Institute Of Public Administration – Outreach Division education". Fainsod: "It enhances the array of new functions assumed by developing countries embarking on the path of modernization and functional specialization." Development administration refers to the process of guiding an organisation towards the achievement of progressive political, economic and social objectives, authoritatively determined in one manner or another. It includes the entire process of nation building, particularly in the developing nations of the world. This view is supported by Pye and Fred.W.Riggs. Origins of Development Administration Development administration is aimed at bringing change for developmental purpose in third world countries. Considered separately, the two words have different meaning: a) Development refers to increasing one's ability to live a better life. b) Administration is the activity of management which really fulfils or carries out the objectives for which the organisation or project is established. Development Administration takes root during the post war period, precisely in the years 1955 and 1956 (Grant 1979) while Public administration was administered prior to these years, Development administration does not come to replace it. Instead, Development administration represent those aspects of public administration which are needed to carry out policies, projects and programs to improve social, political and economic conditions in the newly independent third world countries. Development Administration in the Context of Public Administration The problem with the above definition is that it tells us every little as to whether development administration is different from the traditional teaching of public administration. Frontiers of development administration: most scholars perceive development administration to be different from public administration in two main dimensions:
- The focus of development administration is on the role of the state in socio- economic development whereas public administration confines itself to what administrators should do. It concentrates on civic issues; that you are a servant of the people; your responsibilities etc. therefore, development administration is much wider than public administration.
- Secondly, development administration discusses and analyses issues pertaining to management development i.e. the development of administration. The field of study widens to bring in issues of how to do better; management issues and new ideas of effectiveness. Whereas Public Administration concentrates on loyalty to implement what used to be the case traditionally, neglecting what should be done.
National Institute Of Public Administration – Outreach Division Ref: - B. Scheffer in his book Deadlock in Development Administration addresses the critical question of what is the concern of Development Administration. His main observation is that we should focus on theory etc but scholars should further see how realistic these theories are in practice and how relevant. He advises that there ought to be constant interaction between scholars and administrators, and that this is through two ways:- i) Increasing the role of scholars as advisors to governmental institutions. This will facilitate the process of feedback. ii) Increasing the trend by administrators to become scholars. Form training institutes to make the administrators meet scholars and learn. Scheffer was also concerned about the impact of development administration. He noted that the prescriptive approach of the U.S. tradition should be minimized and substituted by the pragmatic approach. He argued that when the Americans just prescribed the consequences were very costly for the recipient developing countries. Ref: Kay – Development Administration and its impact. Kay takes Scheffer’s approach wider. That the socialist countries have shown rapid transformation alright, but the developing countries need not take the socialist models path. He supports Scheffer’s approach for two main reasons: i) That it does not matter which ideology you belong to; but pragmatism is a rule of reality. ii) That pragmatism induces some degree of flexibility in the thinking of the political leadership; to the extent which accommodates the role of advisors i.e. these advisors can be frank with the leaders. The last aspect is that the principles of management are not associated with traditional Public Administration but more associated with Development Administration. Management as an area of concentration entails that the officers can be interchanged between business and public administration because they instill a sense of qualitative leadership, irrespective of the environment in which the officer operates. What is common to all is management. One is surrounded by political forces and the other by a business concern. The public employees are not seen as masters but as servants of the people. The teaching of Public Administration and Development Administration share this concern. The problem in developing countries is that most of them had undergone the process of colonialism. The colonial masters never regarded themselves as public servants but as masters of the people. The biggest problem after independence is how to continue after independence and the challenge of Development Administration is how to change this.
National Institute Of Public Administration – Outreach Division
- Freedom These represent common goals sought by all individuals and society. Mwosa (1987) Defines development as all things to all men and women. Its definition depends on what community one lives in or belongs. To an urban dweller it means social amenities. For a villager it may mean primary health care, clean water etc. Dimensions of the Term Development Disregarding the disagreements and controversies surrounding the means of achieving development, most social scientists tend to agree with the observation that development has both the quantitative dimensions of growth and the qualitative dimensions of redistribution. In other words that development has two dimensions. The second observation is that most contemporary definitions of development include the simultaneous expansion of material production or increased economic growth in aggregate terms. They emphasize development as economic growth. Secondly, they see it as achieving the goal of social equality emphasizing equality in the allocation of the country’s scare resources. That is, emphasizing development as improved social welfare and socio-political equality to the people in terms of material distribution of economic resources, basic services and political rights. The third dimension is the tendency to emphasize increasing capacity of the performance of socio-economic institutions, especially those associated with the state. Ref: Dudley Seers Seers’ argument is that ‘development’ involves not only economic growth or increased production by a few but also the general condition of the people in the country. He identified three criteria to show whether development is taking place: a. A decline in poverty b. A decline in unemployment c. A decline in inequality; and an increase in the national institutional capacity. Each of the above are very interrelated. The unifying emphasis is on the criterion of sustained economy usually meaning economic growth i.e. an increase in G.N.P most books on development concentrate on this. The second dimension is social development. This usually refers to a process which makes people in general better off by increasing their demand over goods and services and by increasing the choices open to the … the emphasis in social development is on the distribution aspect, moving towards social welfare. More technically, perhaps, social development is an outward production possibility; an outward shift in a country’s production possibility boundary, underlined the distributional aspect. Usually the term ‘social welfare’ is associated with the term social development.
National Institute Of Public Administration – Outreach Division The third dimension is political development. This usually refers to institution building especially those institutions associated with increasing the state’s capacity to govern or to rule, expanding and guaranteeing people’s rights and a trend towards equality. The fourth dimension is cultural development. This normally refers to the maintenance of a country’s culture in dynamic social change. The emphasis is on cultural adaptability. Ref: Uma Lele in her book Rural Development argues that where culture is plural this may lead to inter cultural conflicts which may undermine the process of development. The fifth dimension is the environmental context development. The process of social- economic development does not take place in a vacuum. The process occurs within an environment of social change is also connotation, following the above outlined path, growth and widely diffused improvement in the material socio-economic welfare, plus increased institutional capacity of the state. This is not only in order for the state to govern using its coercive power, but also to manage. The sixth dimension is the concentration on the process and impact of development can be intentional, or planned e.g. the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning is consciously thinking of what to do in order to develop Zambia. That development can also be incidental or unplanned means that not everything that was planned is achieved, but some new aspects do come in. in this respect, development can also be viewed differently. For example, the colonial governments, in their efforts to exploit did some things which they did not intend to be developmental. Even the Zambian government could be viewed in this context for example, some areas developed as a result of the concern for the extraction of minerals. The Gwembe Valley for instance, developed as a result of the expansion of Maamba Collieries. The seventh dimension is that development is inherently uneven. The process and impact of development is uneven. This occurs in three ways: a) how development affects individuals is not equal because people are born differently in terms of their capabilities. So, the way they use the available options differs, though the opportunities are the same. Development tends to be different in its impact on regions. Some regions tend to be relatively more developed than others. The way development affects countries is different. Thus we get underdeveloped areas, etc. the role of the state in trying to control and minimize this unevenness is crucial in understanding the nature of development. The eighth dimension of development is that it is necessary to distinguish the issue of exploitation from development. Exploitation has the following elements: a. Surplus accumulation is inherently exploitative. The development process is exploitative ref: Kari Marx Capital
National Institute Of Public Administration – Outreach Division The tenth dimension is that development is either revolutionary or evolutionary as a process. The evolutionary process usually refers to a normal degree and socio-economic progress, whereas revolutionary development refers to externally infused socio- economic progress. This is normally associated with revolutionary thought. Either the workers rise against the bourgeois or the soldiers take over to bring development. Most socialist oriented development tends to be associated with revolution, while capitalism is evolutionary. However, there are two main observations: a. A leadership which may claim to be revolutionary may only do so at the time of taking over state power. Their revolutionary spirit tends to decline over time and they may end up even more conservative than their predecessors. b. Even within the context of capitalist development, the leadership can claim that the trend is revolutionary, especially when they are capturing state power from a socialist regime. Whether evolutionary or revolutionary, development depends on the significant role of the state. There are three interpretations of the role of the state. i) The state is neutral: i.e. the state is more or less like a referee trying to mediate between various competing interests; classes vis - a-vis capitalists on one hand and workers on the other hand. However, this theory is normally associated with the capitalist state, and it was not transplanted to the colonies. The state took a very active role in the colonies. ii) The instrumental role of the state: The state is here seen as an instrument of the dominant class. This is normally a Marxist interpretation. It means that the state is dictated by a dominant group. It is dominated by those in power, because those in power are the owners of the means of production. iii) The autonomous role of the state: that the state is free to act in a way it sees fit. It is not subjected to the dictates of other groups, but can move in a way it wishes. The eleventh dimension has to do with connotational aspects of the term ‘development’. Generally speaking development as a concept can be qualified by the speaker himself, and normally, this qualification tends to be much more connotational. One dimension is that development may be referring to economic development can either enhance or undermine social-economic development. The twelfth dimension has to do with the conventional functions of the government in the economy. Though policies of governmental interference have always been criticized, there are certain principal areas where government might justifiably intervene in order to prevent the situation of outcomes being determined by the free inter-government interventions is allocations.
National Institute Of Public Administration – Outreach Division Spillovers and public goods are classic cases market failure where intervention may improve allocative efficiency. Private sector market system fails to provide public goods such as defense and maintenance of law and order, because of the ‘free rider’ status. Second is through distribution. Government may intervene in the economy to correct distributions of income across society i.e. to check the inequality. This can be achieved through progressive taxation and the welfare transfer system. Apart from their revenue expenditure implications, government may also use taxation and subsidy policies as a means of influencing consumption patterns in society. Third is through the regulative function: government may use monetary and fiscal policies. Thus you get advocates of the diffusion theory which means that development has two sectors: a. The traditional sector and; b. The modern sector. Before concentrating on the modern sector, the tradition sector will be absorbed into this. This dual structure has been controversial, especially regarding the means of diffusion. The two sectors cannot be seen in isolation. Some aspects of the traditional sector are also found in the modern one. The other factor has to do with the rapid population growth in the third world. The other factor has to do with the tendency to see the third world societies as being compound of either the modern sector or the traditional one, which shows how little interrelationship there is between the two. The other factor is about prize expectations. This arose from the independence struggle. The underlying problem is that there is intensive temptation to take short cuts, this leads to grave mistakes. Whether all this is true can only be analysed by relating modernization theory to other schools of thought. The Unit has highlighted the meaning of Development Administration as distinct from the term Public Administration. The unit has also outlined the various dimensions of the term development, bringing out perspectives of a number of writers to shed light on these dimensions.
Unit summary
National Institute Of Public Administration – Outreach Division The 'drive to maturity* brings a spread of growth from the leading to the other sectors and a broader application of modern technology followed by necessary changes in the society at large. The 'stage of high mass consumption' can be reached after attaining a certain level of national income and formulating an economic policy giving priority to increased private consumption. The critical phase for development is the 'take-off stage' during which net investment rates have to increase from 5 to 10 per cent of the national product and during which the political, social, and institutional framework has to be built in order to reach a situation of self-sustained growth. The financial resources must be accumulated internally by higher saving rates. Income distribution favoring classes and strata which are willing and able to use capital more productively than others has the same effect. While this theory became widely known, perhaps because of its author's political post and the fact that it is a counter-position to Marxian approaches, this "time- table of development" does little to explain why some societies go ahead on this ladder and others not. As well, its value for forecasting the results of development activities is limited. The rather fixed stages hardly allow for alternative goals and pro cesses o f d ev elo pmen t an d in co rpo r ate a h ig h d egr ee of ethnocentrism. According to modernization theories, internal factors in the countries, such as illiteracy, traditional agrarian structure, the traditional attitude of the population, the low division of labour, the lack of communication and infrastructure, etc., are responsible for underdevelopment. Differences in structure and historical origin are considered of little importance; international dependencies are not taken into account. Consequently, a change of these endogenous factors is the strategy for development. The industrialized countries are the model for economy and society, and this model will be reached sooner or later. There is a continuum between the least and the most developed country and each country has its position on this line. The difference as compared to the industrialized countries is the degree of backwardness which has to be made up for. Suitable measures are the modernization of the production apparatus, capital aid, transfer of know-how, so that the developing countries can reach the stage of industrialized countries as soon as possible. Development is seen as an increase of production and efficiency and measured primarily by comparing the per capita income.
National Institute Of Public Administration – Outreach Division As the name suggests, this is a theory that explains the process of development from a modernization point of view. It looks at the problems that characterize the present day Third World societies and then suggests that these societies are passing through stages of development that were experienced by the present day developed societies of Europe and North America, way back in the eighteenth century when they were also developing. As Peter W. Preston (1998) explains, the background to the construction of modernization theory can be taken to comprise a package of social scientific material which specifies the nature of industrial society, indicates how non industrial societies might be expected to modernize”. In other words, modernization theory is one of the theories of economic growth that explains how an economy typically grows from one stage to another. Thus the main concern of modernization theory is to analyze the movement of societies from one stage of development to another, until they achieve full development, which is equivalent to the modern stage as we see it in the present day developed societies. In making this analysis, the theory emphasizes that the process of development that is now taking place in Third World societies must follow a path similar to that which did the industrialization process of Europe and North America take? The theory also emphasizes that in order for Third World countries to achieve this universal modern stage, they must diffuse into their societies those fundamental characteristics (traits), which were responsible for bringing about development in the developed countries. There are a number of prominent thinkers who have contributed to modernization theory, but amongst these was one outstanding professor of economics known as Walt Rostow, whose contribution was so comprehensive as to earn him the acknowledgement of being the originator of the theory. Rostow did not directly focus on the problems of developing countries, but very broadly analyzed the processes that took place when Western Europe and North America underwent changes as their economies grew from the eighteenth century to the late nineteenth century. In the process of analyzing development in general and trying to explain how it was brought about in Europe, he came up with a thesis that the course of development anywhere in the world has in history proceeded in stages. He called these as the stages of economic growth and identified five such stages, namely: (a) Traditional Society According to Rostow, ‘a traditional society is one whose structure is developed within limited production functions, based on pre-Newtonian science and technology, and on pre-Newtonian attitudes towards the physical world’. Rostow clarifies further that ‘Newton is here used as a symbol for that watershed in history when men came widely to believe that the external world was subject to a few knowable laws, and was systematically capable of productive manipulation’.
National Institute Of Public Administration – Outreach Division hierarchical social structure. With relatively narrow scope. It followed from the productivity ceiling that food production absorbed 75 per cent or more of the workforce. Also, a high proportion of income above minimum consumption levels was spent on non productive or low productivity outlays, for example religious and other movements, wars, expensive weddings, a funeral, etc. In other words, since it was so difficult to produce something above minimum consumption, the people in a traditional society spent most of their efforts and time on agricultural activities. Agriculture was the main occupation so that it affected the social structure in that there was room (scope) for other activities, except for agriculture. Agriculture dominated most of the activities taking place in this society. Rostow explains further that family and clan connections played a large role in social organization. Also, the value system of a traditional society was geared to long run fatalism, meaning that there was an assumption that the range of possibilities open to one’s grandchildren would be just about what it had been for one’s grandparents. This means that individual members of a traditional society were judged mainly on the basis of which family they came from and what that family was capable of achieving. They were not necessarily judged on the merit of what special qualities the individual possessed. The long run fatalism signifies that due to the judging of individuals on the basis of family connections, there was a widespread belief that what a person can achieve in their lifetime was limited to what had been achieved by their ancestors. It is not possible in this society to think of an individual doing more than had been accomplished by their grandparents. For example, if the ancestors excelled in carpentry, then one can only be recognized if they equally fitted in that trade. This must have been a major barrier for individual progression in traditional society. Rostow gives past examples of typical traditional as being the entire world before the era of Newton, including the dynasties in China, the civilizations of the Middle East and the Mediterranean, and medieval Europe. However, he adds that even in the present time, any society which remains untouched or unmoved by Man’s new capability for regularly manipulating his environment is a traditional society in the same sense as those in the past used to be. (b) Preconditions for Take Off This is the second stage of development and according to Rostow it embraces societies in transition; moving from traditionalism. He emphasizes that it takes time to transform a traditional society in the ways necessary for it to exploit the fruits of modern science, to fend off diminishing returns.
National Institute Of Public Administration – Outreach Division The typical preconditions were initially developed in the Western Europe of the late seventeenth century and early eighteenth century when the insights of modern began to be translated into new production functions in agriculture and industry. However, the more general case is that of recent history whereby in developing countries these preconditions did not arise indigenously. Instead, they were introduced into these countries by some external intrusion in the form of a colonial force. Such invasions shocked the traditional society and began or speeded up the process of the breaking down of such a society. It can therefore be concluded that Rostow is suggesting that traditional society for the developing countries was experienced before these societies came into contact with colonial forces, while the actual period of colonization represents the period of preconditions for take-off. The actual preconditions themselves are identified as firstly the spreading of the idea in traditional society that economic progress is not only a possibility but a necessary condition for some other purpose, such as national dignity, private profit, general welfare, or a better life for one’s children. Secondly, education, at least for some members of traditional society, broadens and changes to suit the needs of modern economic activity. At the same time new types of enterprising individuals come forward, willing to mobilize savings and to take risks in pursuit of profits or modernization. Banks and other financial institutions for mobilizing capital appear, while investment increases. There is also a political dimension to the above preconditions. This is in the sense that the transmission of modern characteristics to less advanced societies may have a negative effect in the less advanced society. This is in the sense that the people in the less advanced society have a perception that the advanced society is imposing its will on their society. This resulted in a reactive nationalist feeling that led those in the traditional society to take the necessary steps to undo the society and transform it in such a way as to permit economic growth. According to Rostow, without this challenge to human national dignity coming from the intruders from more advanced societies, the rate of modernization would have been slower than in fact it has been. Thus one finds that in history, the process of modernization has everywhere been led by a combination of nationalists and those who are interested in economic growth. For example, under colonial rule, the positive and negative effects of the preconditions mixed and resulted in the creation of a new class of educated Africans. These educated Africans led the way forward in the struggle for independence. Rostow however argues that although the nationalism was a powerful engine of the modernization process, it posed a number of problems for economic development. This was mainly in the sense that this nationalism did not prepare the educated Africans to immediately and directly face and handle the economic task of the preconditions and the take off. On the contrary, when they attained political independence, the leaders were tempted to go on with what they were familiar with, i.e. the game of politics.
