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D
evelopmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP) has been considered a key concept in early childhood education. Although the NAEYC DAP guidelines have achieved a canonical place in early childhood education, there are diverse interpretations and understandings what DAP is, how to implement it, and how important it is in relation to overall classroom practice. (Parker & Neuharth-Pritchett, 2006; Smith, 1997; Shiakou & Belsky, 2009; Swadener & Kessler, 1991). The state of understanding of DAP of teachers is reflected in the variety of teacher beliefs about the importance of DAP.
Among the studies of teacher beliefs about DAP, inservice teachers’ beliefs have been emphasized over those of preservice teachers. This may be due to researchers concern with
how teachers’ beliefs have impacted their already developed teaching practices. The preservice educational stage, however, is a critical period in which new teachers begin to develop and elaborate upon their own beliefs (Tschannen- Moran, Woolfok Hoy, & Hoy, 1998; Weinstein, 1998). Once beliefs are developed, it is difficult to change them (Smith, 1997).
Teacher education is one of the most important factors in becoming a professional educator and profoundly influences teachers’ beliefs and teaching practices (Smith, 1997; Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Preservice teachers’ beliefs are constructed through both the medium of teacher education programs and through personal and professional experiences (i.e., practicum, internship). Once these beliefs
Developmentally Appropriate Practice
(DAP) as Defined and Interpreted by Early
Childhood Preservice Teachers: Beliefs
About DAP and Influences of Teacher
Education and Field Experience
Hae Kyoung Kim: Towson University
This study examines early childhood preservice teachers’ beliefs about developmentally appropriate practices (DAP) and how they define DAP and interpret principles and characteristics of DAP. The study shows that early childhood preservice teachers possess relatively strong beliefs about DAP. Preservice teachers who were further along in the teacher training program demonstrated stronger DAP beliefs than teachers who had just begun the teacher training program. Similarly, teachers who had undergone more field placements reported stronger beliefs about DAP. Teachers’ own definitions and principles of developmentally appropriate/inappropriate practice were examined. Implications of the findings are discussed for preparing teachers to implement appropriate practice.
are shaped, they are difficult to change (Smith, 1997; Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Given this background, an examination of preservice teachers’ beliefs throughout a range of professional stages can be a powerful diagnostic for understanding the factors that influence beliefs regarding DAP. Furthermore, research that examines different beliefs about the definitions of DAP among early childhood educators is required to encourage understanding among teacher educators and researchers.
Literature review
DAP is a broad, overarching concept that pertains to diverse developmental areas for children in the 0-8 age category. DAP statements were revised in order to adapt to newer educational needs and criteria in 1997 and 2009. Revised statements in 1997 emphasized three kinds of important knowledge for educators - age appropriateness, individual appropriateness, and cultural appropriateness. (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997). Most recent DAP statements published in 2009 still put three important kinds of information including age, individual, and social and cultural context. In addition, in order to reflect a newer framework for optimal education and critical issues in early childhood education , revised principles and guidelines for decision about DAP were presented including the following five provisions: creating a caring community of learners, teaching to enhance development and learning, planning curriculum to achieve important goals, assessing children’s development and learning, and establishing reciprocal relationships with families (Copple, & Bredekemp, 2009). Despite specific guidelines and examples in DAP, there is not a unique concept of developmentally idealistic practice. Teachers from diverse cultural, social, and linguistic background may differently understand, apply, and implement appropriate practice.
The term ‘belief’ has been defined as “values, which house the evaluative, comparative, and
judgmental functions of beliefs and replace predisposition with an imperative to action” (Pajares, 1992, p.314). Teachers’ beliefs are closely related to teachers’ thought processes and essential to establishing an emotional attitude (Cassidy & Lawrence, 2000; Clark & Peterson, 1986; K. E. Smith, 1997; Smith & Shepard, 1988). Beliefs may be defined in terms of a disposition that an individual possess regarding the truth of a proposition and represent a teacher’s disposition toward action (Brown & Cooney, 1982; Smith & Shepard, 1988). Related to action, beliefs can be inferred from a teacher’s behavior. Research has demonstrated that teachers’ beliefs and decision-making process are related because daily decisions are based on their beliefs (Piotrkowski, Botsko, & Matthews, 2000).
The emphasis on teachers’ beliefs is based on the fact that beliefs are related to and affect teaching practices and interactions with children (File, 1994; McMullen, 1997; Kowalski, Pretti- Frontczak, & Johnson, 2001; Pajares, 1992; Piotrkowski et al., 2000; Stipek & Byler, 1997; Vartuli, 2005). The research involving the relationship between beliefs and practices can be categorized in two ways. First, the relationship that exists between teachers’ stated beliefs and observed practice. Second, the relationship between teachers’ stated beliefs and self-reported practice.
As with research that focuses on early childhood inservice teachers, there has been limited research that centers on preservice teachers. Preservice teachers’ beliefs are important because teachers develop their own perspectives and beliefs early in the preservice teaching stage (Smith, 1997; Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Coursework has been demonstrated to affect preservice teachers’ self-efficacy. However, teaching experience (i.e., internship, apprenticeship) has also a greater influence on self-efficacy for elementary preservice teachers (Housego, 1992; Hoy & Woolfolk, 1990; Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Specifically,
beliefs, inappropriate activities and materials, and inappropriate structure. Internal consistency was conducted using Cronbach’s alpha: developmentally inappropriate activities and materials (r =.84), appropriate social item (r =.77), appropriate individualization (r =.70), appropriate literacy activities (r =.60), appropriate integrated curriculum beliefs (r =.66), and inappropriate structure (r =.58) (Charlesworth, Hart, Burts, Thomasson, Mosley & Fleege, 1993).
Procedure
Teacher information questionnaire and the Teacher Beliefs Scale (TBS) were administered by the researcher in person. Each survey packet was given a number, and these numbers were used instead of names to identify each participant and to maintain confidentiality of participants. After collecting questionnaires, in order to examine in-depth understanding of preservice teachers’ beliefs about DAP, individual interviews with open-ended questions were conducted with three preservice teachers. Three of the participants from the larger questionnaire study were randomly contacted to participate in follow-up interviews.
All interviews were audio-taped and transcribed. Interview transcripts were coded from the interviews based on open coding system (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Domain analysis was
used to code protocols (Spradley, 1979). The pseudo names - Kathy, Sera, and Amy - are used to identify each interviewee to protect participant confidentiality. To reduce researcher bias and to support trustworthiness of the study, member checking and peer review techniques were employed.
Results and Discussion
Beliefs about DAP
The mean score of TBS items assessing DAP was 57.32 with a standard deviation of 4.8. The scores ranged from 47 to 65 with a possible range of 13 to 65. This study supports the idea that preservice teachers believe that it is important to use practices that are identified as developmentally appropriate. This result is similar to previous studies on preservice teachers (File & Gullo, 2002; Stipek & Byler, 1997).
Relationship between beliefs about DAP and academic status, field experiences
Means (with standard deviations in parenthesis) for groups who are juniors, seniors and graduate students were 54.68(5.45), 59.29(3.09), and 58.50(4.36), respectively. The effect of academic status was statistically significant, F (2, 62) = 7.40, p = .001. To find
Table 1. Post-hoc comparison tests for academic status in DAP beliefs.
Groups Mean Differences Std. Error Sig.
DAP
Junior
Senior -4.61** 1.265. Graduate -3.82* 1.417.
Senior
Junior 4.61** 1.265. Graduate .79 1.428.
Graduate Junior 3.82* 1.417. Senior -.79 1.428.
- p < .05, **p < .005, ***p<.
the location of the statistically significant mean differences the Scheffe procedure was implemented. First, the difference between juniors and seniors was statistically significant, t(62) = 4.61, p = .002. Secondly, the difference between juniors and graduates was statistically significant, t(62) = 3.82, p = .032. Post-hoc comparisons were presented in Table 1.
Seniors and graduate students held more positive beliefs about DAP than did the junior students. This indicates that the length of teacher education and amount of coursework has a positive effect on beliefs about DAP. This is consistent with research on the influence of coursework in teacher education (File & Gullo, 2002; Hoy & Woolfolk, 1990; Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998; Smith, 1997).
There was a statistically significant relationship between beliefs about music and number of practicum placements (n = 65, r =.364, p = .003). It indicates that beliefs about DAP positively related to numbers of practicum placements. The relationship between beliefs about DAP and length of practicum experience also found statistically significant (n = 64, r = .384, p = .002). This implies stronger beliefs about DAP is related to longer field experiences.
Preservice teachers who had more field placements for longer period displayed stronger beliefs about DAP. Previous studies have also demonstrated a relationship between field experience (i.e., internship, apprenticeship) and teacher beliefs (Housego, 1992; Hoy & Woolfolk, 1990; Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). These studies showed internship or apprenticeship has a significant influence on teacher beliefs. Particularly, the graduate students had completed an internship and had taken more than 60 credits in early childhood education coursework, including early childhood curriculum. Therefore, graduate students had more opportunities to gain DAP related knowledge and develop their own beliefs about DAP than did the juniors and
seniors. Diverse experiences in different settings and length of experience may affect teacher beliefs about DAP because these experiences may offer opportunities to observe DAP and reflect on DAP concepts.
Meaning of DAP defined by teachers
Using qualitative analysis to understand DAP is effective because people have their own relevance structure, and teachers have their own definitions and beliefs with respect to DAP. Kathy was the only participant who mentioned about the three components in DAP. This may indicate that Kathy has correct and sufficient knowledge of DAP. Sera described the components of age and ability level, and Amy did not discuss any of the three components.
Kathy: DAP is all about looking at each child individually and seeing what they need and what their strengths are, what their weaknesses are, what you should focus on? You always hear about that it is needs to be culturally appropriate. You need to look at where they are coming from what their life is like outside of a school. It is age- appropriate. For what level they’re at, what their ages- just individually looking at them as a person because no teacher would be at the same place and need to realize that in your classroom.”
Kathy: what children are interested in, what they need to focus on, what teachers think it would be important for children as an individual.
Sera and Amy had some similarities in their definition, particularly pertaining to the provision of appropriate activities depending on children’s ability through a modification of difficulty level.
Sera: DAP is just a way to have an appropriate practice in your classroom so that you’re applying activities and giving activities to students so that they are able to complete that. They are easy enough for them to complete but also difficult enough for them to be challenged
beliefs about DAP. The results, however, revealed an imbalance between pedagogical knowledge and subject knowledge among preservice teachers. In the set of interviews, the teachers who held stronger beliefs about DAP demonstrated knowledge about key principles of DAP. They noticed that teachers play a key role in the implementation of DAP. However, their descriptions of DAP and criticisms of inappropriate practice were primarily focused on ‘how to teach’, not ‘what to teach’. The discrepancy between DAP and teaching content has been proposed in terms of how to implement DAP on teaching subjects and learning standards (Da Ros-Voseles, Danyi, & Aurillo, 2003; Goldstein, 2007). Although some teachers strongly supported DAP, they might have faced with difficulties in teaching specific subjects in developmentally appropriate ways because their beliefs about DAP were focused on how to teach rather than what to teach.
The interviewees described inappropriate practice as the utilization of too many worksheets, desk and chair settings, and an insufficient number of learning centers and free choice activities. Most descriptions were not aimed at specific development domains or content. This implies an imbalance in the perception of subject importance. It appeared as though the preservice teachers were knowledgeable in the pedagogical aspects of DAP, but they revealed disagreements and differences in their understandings of the various subjects necessary for a developmentally appropriate classroom. Therefore, teacher educators should focus more on how specific content can be taught within the DAP framework for young children. Preservice teachers need to gain knowledge not only of appropriate practice but also appropriate content to teach.
Research on teacher beliefs in early childhood education needs to be extended to address diverse domain areas and the relationships between specific domains. Many belief studies in early childhood education have been implemented
with a focus on development. Examining domain specific beliefs may offer a better understanding of teachers’ belief systems (Fang, 1996). Teacher beliefs develop and change through experiences and learning. Specifically, once the teachers enter the teaching practice as novice teachers, they may encounter different beliefs, conflicts with their own beliefs, or difficulties implementing certain practices. Although preservice teachers possess strong beliefs about DAP, they may have conflicts between their understanding of the importance implementing play-based activities and the pressure of academic achievement. How do early childhood teacher beliefs about DAP change as time progresses? What are the factors that influence this change?
References
Bredekamp, S., & Copple, C. (Eds.). (1997). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Bredekamp, S. (Ed.). (1987). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood program serving children from birth through age 8. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Brown, S. M., & Cooney, T. J. (1982). Research on teacher education: A philosophical orientation. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 4, 267-273. Cassidy, D. J., & Lawrence, J. M. (2000). Teachers’ beliefs: The “whys” behind the “how tos” in child care classrooms. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 14(2), 193-
Charlesworth, R., Hart, C. H., Burts, D. C., & Hernandex, S. (1991). Kindergarten teachers beliefs and practices. Early Child Development and Care, 70, 17-35. Charlesworth, R., Hart, C. H., Burts, D. C., Thomasson R. H., Mosley, J., & Fleege, P. O. (1993). Measuring the developmentally appropriateness of kindergarten teachers’
beliefs and practices. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 8, 255-276. Clark, C. M., & Peterson, P. L. (1986). Teachers’ thought processes (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan. Copple, C., & Bredekemp, S. (2009). Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth through Age 8. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children Da Ros-Voseles, D. A., Danyi, D., & Aurillo, J. (2003). Aligning professional preparation and practice: Bringing constructivist learning to kindergarten. Dimensions of Early Childhood, 31(2). 33-38. Fang, Z. (1996). A review of research on teacher beliefs and practices. Educational Research, 38(1), 47-65. File, N. (1994). Children’s play, teacher-child interactions, and teacher beliefs in integrated early childhood programs. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 9, 223-240. File, N., & Gullo, D. F. (2002). A comparison of early childhood and elementary education students’ beliefs about primary classroom teaching practices. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 17, 126-237. Goldstein, L. S. (2007). Beyond the DAP versus standards dilemma: Examining the unforgiving complexity of kindergarten teaching in the United States. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 22, 39-54. Housego, B. (1992). Monitoring student teachers’ feeling of preparedness to teach, personal teaching efficacy, and teaching efficacy in a new secondary teacher education program. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 38(1), 49-64. Hoy, W. K., & Woolfolk, A. E. (1990). Socialization of student teachers. American Educational Research Journal, 27, 279-300. Kowalski, K., Pretti-Frontczak, K., & Johnson, L. (2001). Preschool teachers’ beliefs concerning the importance of various developmental
skills and abilities. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 16(1), 5-14. McMullen, M. (1997). The effects of early childhood teacher education on self perceptions and beliefs about developmentally appropriate practices. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 18(3), 55-68.vv Parker, A., & Neuharth-Pritchett, S. (2006). Developmentally appropriate practice in kindergarten: factors shaping teacher beliefs and practice Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 21(1), 65-78. Pajares, F. (1992). Teachers’ beliefs and educational research: cleaning up a messy construct. Review of Educational Research, 62, 307-332. Piotrkowski, C. S., Botsko, M., & Matthews, E. (2000). Parents’ and teachers’ beliefs about children’s school readiness in a high-need community. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 15(4), 537-558. Shiakou ,M & Belsky, J. (2009). Exploring effects of developmentally appropriate practices in Cyprus. Early Education and Development, 20(4), 565–583. Smith, K. E. (1997). Student teachers’ beliefs about developmentally appropriate practice: pattern, stability, and the influence of locus of control. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 12(2), 221-243. Smith, M. L., & Shepard, L. A. (1988). Kindergarten readiness and retention: a qualitative study of teachers’ beliefs and practices. American Educational Research Journal, 25, 307-333. Spradley, J. P. (1979). The ethnographic interview. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Stipek, D. J., & Byler, P. (1997). Early childhood education teachers: Do they practice what they preach? Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 12, 305-325. Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. M. (1998). Basics of Qualitative Research. Thousand oaks, CA: Sage.
Item
1 - Not imporant at all 2 - Not VeryImportant3 - FairlyImportant4 - VeryImportant5 - ExtremelyImportant
4 As an evaluation technique in the kindergarten program, performance on worksheets and workbooks is
It is for kindergarten activities to be responsive
to individual differences in interest.
It is for kindergarten activities to be responsive
to individual differences in development.
It is that each curriculum area be taught as
separate subjects at separate times.
It is for teacher-pupil interactions in kindergarten
to help develop children’s self-esteem and positive feelings
toward learning.
It is for children to be allowed to select many of
their own activities from a variety of learning areas that the
teacher has prepared (blocks, science center, etc.)
It is for children to be allowed to cut their own
shapes, perform their own steps in an experiment, and plan
their own creative drama, art, and writing activities.
It is for students to work silently and alone on
seatwork.
It is for kindergarteners to learn through active
exploration.
It is for kindergarteners to learn through
interaction with other children.
14 Workbooks and/or ditto sheets are^ to the
kindergarten program.
Flashcards (numbers, letters, and/or words) are to
the kindergarten program for instructional purposes.
The basal reader is to the kindergarten reading
program.
In terms of effectiveness, it is for the teacher to
talk to the whole group and make sure everyone participates
in the same activity.
In terms of effectiveness, it is for the teacher to
move among groups and individuals, offering suggestions,
asking questions, and facilitating children’s involvement
with materials and activities.
Item
1 - Not imporant at all 2 - Not VeryImportant3 - FairlyImportant4 - VeryImportant5 - ExtremelyImportant
It is for teachers to use their authority through
treats, stickers, and/or stars to encourage appropriate
behavior.
It is for teachers to use their authority through
punishments and/or reprimands to encourage appropriate
behavior.
21 It is^ for children to be involved in establishing
rules for the classroom.
It is for children to be instructed in recognizing
the single letters of the alphabet, isolated from words.
23 It is for children to color within predefined lines. 1 2 3 4 5
It is for children in kindergarten to form letters
correctly on a printed line.
It is for children to have stories read to them
individually and/or on a group basis.
26 It is for children to dictate stories to the teacher. 1 2 3 4 5
It is for children to see and use functional print
(telephone books, magazines, etc.) and environmental print
(cereal boxes, potato chip bags, etc.) in the kindergarten
classroom.
28 It is for children to participate in dramatic play. 1 2 3 4 5
29 It is for children to talk informally with adults. 1 2 3 4 5
It is for children to experiment with writing by
inventing their own spelling.
It is to provide many opportunities to develop
social skills with peers in the classroom.
32 It is for kindergarteners to learn to read. 1 2 3 4 5
In the kindergarten program, it is that math be
integrated with all other curriculum areas.
In teaching health and safety, it is to include a
variety of activities throughout the school year.
In the classroom setting, it is for the children to
be exposed to multicultural and nonsexist activities.
36 It is that outdoor time has planned activities. 1 2 3 4 5
37 Input from parents is. 1 2 3 4 5
