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Eye Witness testimony memory questions Q1. Psychologists have carried out research into the use of cognitive interviews. One possible ethical issue which might arise during this research is protection of participants from harm. Explain how psychologists could deal with this ethical issue. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. (Total 3 marks) Q2. Traditionally, police have questioned eye witnesses using the standard interview procedure. This involves a period of free recall about an event, followed by specific questions. However, an increasing number of police forces are now using the cognitive interview technique. Explain how a cognitive interview differs from a standard interview. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ( Extra space ) ......................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. (Total 4 marks)
Q3.
Outline how one research study investigated the accuracy of eyewitness testimony (EWT). ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ( Extra space ) ......................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. (Total 4 marks) Q4. Outline and evaluate research into the effects of anxiety on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony. (Total 12 marks)
(b) Other than ethical issues, outline one weakness of using a field experiment in this investigation. ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ (2) (c) Suggest why the psychologist included the question about the man in glasses. ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ (2) (Total 6 marks) Q7. Explain why it might be better to carry out research into eyewitness testimony in the real world, rather than in a laboratory. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. (Total 3 marks)
Q8.
An American space shuttle exploded soon after it was launched. All of the astronauts on board were killed. Crowds of people were watching, including friends and relatives of the astronauts. Six months after the explosion, a student decided to investigate the accuracy of some of the eyewitnesses’ memory of this event. (a) Outline how the student could have used a cognitive interview to investigate this event. Include at least one example of what the participants would be asked to do. ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ Extra space ................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ (4) (b) Explain how anxiety might have affected eyewitness testimony of this event. Refer to psychological research in your answer. ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................
Q10.
A researcher carried out an experiment to investigate misleading information. Participants were shown a photograph in which a man and a woman were talking. The photograph was then taken away and the participants were asked questions about it. Participants were randomly allocated to condition one or condition two. Participants in condition one were asked: Question A “How old was the youth in the photograph?” Participants in condition two were asked: Question B “How old was the man in the photograph?” (a) Why is Question A an example of misleading information? ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ (2) (b) Name an appropriate experimental design which could be used in this experiment. Explain why a repeated measures design would be unsuitable to use in this experiment. Experimental design ................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................ Explanation .................................................................................................. ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ Extra space ................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ (4)
(c) Explain why it would be appropriate to use a pilot study as part of this experiment. ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ Extra space ................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ (4) (d) In this experiment, participants were asked to look at a photograph rather than watch a live conversation. Explain one strength and one limitation of carrying out the experiment in this way. Strength ....................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ Extra space ................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................ Limitation ...................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ (4)
Q12.
Some psychologists argue that there is always more information about an event in a person’s memory than can be recalled at any one time. This means that eye-witness recall can be improved by using certain techniques and methods. Describe and evaluate at least one way of improving eye-witness recall. Refer to evidence in your answer. (Total 16 marks) Q13. Outline one study that has investigated the effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. Extra space .............................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. (Total 4 marks) Q14. Outline and evaluate research into the effects of misleading information on eyewitness testimony. (Total 8 marks)
Q15.
(a) One technique used in cognitive interviews is ‘report everything’. When using this technique, the police officer in this investigation read the following instructions to the participants: “Please tell me everything you can remember about what you saw in the film. Do not leave anything out, even the small details you think may be unimportant.” Identify one other technique which could have been used by the police officer in this cognitive interview. Write down the instructions that he could have read out to the participants. Technique .................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................ Instructions to participants ........................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ (3) (b) The psychologist also recorded the number of correct items recalled and the number of incorrect items recalled in each type of interview. The following results were obtained: Cognitive Interview Standard Interview Mean number of correct items recalled
Mean number of incorrect items recalled
From these results, what might the psychologist conclude about the effectiveness of cognitive interviews? ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ (2) (Total 5 marks)
Q18.
Identify and outline two techniques that may be used in a cognitive interview. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. (Total 4 marks)
M1.
AO3 = 3
Simply identifying or naming one or more potentially relevant ways of dealing with the ethical issue – maximum 1 mark. For example, confidentiality, anonymity, debrief. Further marks for explaining how psychologists could deal with this ethical issue. For example: Right to withdraw (1 mark) Participants should be reminded of their right to withdraw from the research (2 marks) If participants are showing signs of distress, the psychologist should remind the participants of their right to withdraw (3 marks). M2. Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:
- AO1 knowledge and understanding
- AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
- AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation. AO2 = 4 Differences could include effectiveness of cognitive interviews and implications such as cost of training required, time it takes, etc. The main techniques used in a cognitive interview include context reinstatement (CR), reporting everything (RE), recall from a changed perspective (CP) recall in reverse order. Candidates who show some understanding of a cognitive interview, e.g. by naming / outlining one or more of the techniques above, but make no attempt to explain a difference should be awarded a maximum of 2 marks. Further marks for elaboration, eg a standard interview might just ask witnesses to recall an event, but a cognitive interview could ask them to recall the context in which the event occurred. This could include environmental details (such as the weather) and emotional factors (such as how they felt at the time). M3.
blood (33%). Loftus and Burns (1982) found participants who saw a violent version of a crime where a boy was shot in the face had impaired recall for events leading up to the incident. However, in a real life study Yuille and Cutshall (1986) found witnesses who had been most distressed at the time of a shooting gave the most accurate account five months later. Also Christianson and Hubinette (1993) found victims of genuine bank robberies were more accurate in their recall than bystanders. AO2 = 6 Evaluation might relate to the contradictory nature of the research, possibly linked to lack of ecological validity in laboratory studies. Problems of control might also be relevant, eg in Yuille & Cutshall’s study those who experienced the highest levels of stress were closer to the event, which might have helped their recall. Ethical issues could also be relevant as could the practical applications of research. AO Knowledge and understanding
AO
Analysis and evaluation 5 marks Accurate and reasonably detailed Accurate and reasonably detailed answer that demonstrates sound knowledge and understanding of one or more physiological methods of stress management. There is appropriate selection of material to address the question. 5 marks Effective evaluation Effective use of material to address the question and provide informed commentary. Effective evaluation of research. Broad range of issues and/or evidence in reasonable depth, or a narrower range in greater depth. A coherent answer 4-3 marks Less detailed but generally accurate Less detailed but generally accurate answer that demonstrates relevant knowledge and understanding. There is some evidence of selection of material to address the question. 4-3 marks Reasonable evaluation Material is not always used effectively but produces a reasonable commentary. Reasonable evaluation of research. A range of issues and/or evidence in limited depth, or a narrower range in greater depth. A reasonably coherent answer. 2 marks Basic Basic answer that demonstrates some relevant knowledge and understanding but lacks detail and may be muddled. There is little evidence of selection of material to address the question. 2 marks Basic evaluation The use of material provides only a basic commentary. Basic evaluation of research. Superficial consideration of a restricted range of issues and/or evidence. Answer lacks some coherence. 1 mark Very brief/flawed or inappropriate Very brief or flawed answer demonstrating very little knowledge. 1 mark Rudimentary evaluation The use of material provides only a rudimentary commentary. Evaluation of research is just discernible or
Selection and presentation of information is largely or wholly inappropriate. absent. Answer is not coherent. 0 marks No creditworthy material. 0 marks No creditworthy material. M5. AO1 = 6 The main techniques used in the cognitive interview are summarised below. Context reinstatement – trying to mentally recreate an image of the situation, including details of the environment, such as the weather conditions and the individual’s emotional state including their feelings at the time of the incident. Recall from changed perspective – trying to mentally recreate the situation from different points of view eg describing what another witness present at the scene would have seen. Recall in reverse order – the witness is asked to recall the scene in a different chronological order eg from the end to the beginning. Report everything – the interviewer encourages the witness to report all details about the event, even though these details may seem to be unimportant. Other techniques, including those used in enhanced cognitive interviews, should be credited. In both cases, 1 mark for identifying an appropriate technique and 2 further marks for accurate elaboration. M6. Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:
- AO1 knowledge and understanding
- AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
- AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.
M8.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:
- AO1 knowledge and understanding
- AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
- AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation. Although the essential content for this mark scheme remains the same, mark schemes for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) take a different format as follows:
- A single set of numbered levels (formerly bands) to cover all skills
- Content appears as a bulleted list
- No IDA expectation in A Level essays, however, credit for references to issues, debates and approaches where relevant. (a) AO2 = 4 The main techniques used in the cognitive interview are summarised below. Context reinstatement – trying to mentally recreate an image of the situation, including details of the environment, such as the weather conditions and the individual’s emotional state including their feelings at the time of the incident. Recall from changed perspective – trying to mentally recreate the situation from different points of view eg describing what another witness present at the scene would have seen. Recall in reverse order – the witness is asked to recall the scene in a different chronological order eg from the end to the beginning. Report everything – the interviewer encourages the witness to report all details about the event, even though these details may seem to be unimportant. 1 mark for naming one relevant technique. 2 marks for naming two or more relevant techniques or for a very brief outline of how one technique could be used. Further marks for elaboration. Candidates who refer to only one technique should include more detail than those who refer to more than one. 3 or 4 marks can be awarded if the outline could relate to this event. (b) AO2 = 6 Candidates must refer to research where the anxiety component is clear. Candidates might refer to the Yerkes-Dodson law which suggests moderate anxiety is associated with better recall than very high or very low anxiety. In this case friends and relatives might show worse recall than other people in the crowd.
Laboratory based research has generally shown impaired recall in high anxiety conditions. In Loftus’s (1979) weapon focus experiment more participants correctly identified a person when they were holding a pen (49%) than when they were holding a knife covered in blood (33%). Loftus and Burns (1982) found participants who saw a violent version of a crime where a boy was shot in the face had impaired recall for events leading up to the incident. However, in a real life study Yuille and Cutshill (1986) found witnesses who had been most distressed at the time of a shooting gave the most accurate account five months later. Also Christianson and Hubinette (1993) found victims of genuine bank robberies were more accurate in their recall than bystanders. There is a range of acceptable answers to this question and marks should be given for effective use of the material. Answers which do not make explicit reference to this event should be awarded a maximum of 4 marks. 6 marks Effective explanation Accurate and reasonably detailed explanation of how anxiety might affect eye- witness testimony of this event that demonstrates sound knowledge and understanding of relevant research. 5 – 4 marks Less detailed but generally accurate Less detailed but generally accurate explanation of how anxiety might affect eye- witness testimony of this event that demonstrates knowledge and understanding of relevant research. 3 – 2 marks Basic Basic explanation of how anxiety might affect eye-witness testimony of this event has that demonstrates some knowledge of relevant research but detail may be muddled. 1 mark Very brief/flawed Very brief or flawed explanation of how anxiety might affect eye-witness testimony of this event has that demonstrates very little knowledge of relevant research. 0 marks No creditworthy information. M9. AO2 = 4 The answer should clearly relate to one or more of the main techniques used in a cognitive interview (other than report everything): Context reinstatement. Recall from a changed perspective. Recall in reverse order. And / or the main additional features of the enhanced cognitive interview: Encourage to relax and speak slowly.
