Download GCU BIO-201 Midterm Study guide and more Study Guides, Projects, Research Biology in PDF only on Docsity!
GCU BIO-201 Midterm Study guide
1. Describe the difference between anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiolo- gy: Anatomy, study of
structure and organization of body parts. Physiology, study of the functions and processes of these body parts. Pathophysiology examines the abnormalities / disturbances in physiological processes that lead to disease.
2. 6 levels of structural organization: Chemical level, Cellular level, Tissue level, Organ level, Organ
system level, Organism level
3. Describe negative feedback and its purpose in maintaining homeostasis as well as its relation to a
receptor, integrator, and effector.: Negative feed- back reverses a deviation from homeostasis. Receptor senses a change, integrator processes the information, effector produces a change to counteract the deviation.
4. Describe positive feedback & give an example: Positive feedback amplifies a change leading to a
greater deviation. example, childbirth when uterine contractions stimulate the release of oxytocin which increases contractions further until childbirth
5. Describe the molecular structure and importance of water: water is a polar molecule with a bent
shape due to its oxygen atom & 2 hydrogen atoms. Importance: ability to dissolve solutes, participate in chemical reaction, regulate temp, provides medium for biological processing
6. Identify a proton or electron on a molecule: A proton is a positively charged subatomic particle
found in the nucleus of an atom. An electron is a negatively charged particle orbiting around the nucleus
7. Difference between a covalent vs. hydrogen vs. ionic bond: Covalent bonds involve the sharing of
electron pairs between atoms, hydrogen bonds are weak attractions between partially charged atoms, Ionic bonds involve the transfer of electrons from one atom to another.
8. Describe enzyme, protein, carbohydrate, lipids, nucleic acids, phosphopro- teins, glycoproteins,
lipoproteins, phospholipids and a substrate.: Enzymes- biological catalyst that speed up chemical reactions. Carbohydrates- organic com- pounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Lipids- hydrophobic molecules that include fats, oils and phospholipids. Nucleic acids- macromolecules that store and transmit genetic information. Phosphoprotein- a protein w added phosphate groups, which often helps regulate its function within cells. glycoprotein- a protein w attached sugar molecules, often involved in cell communication and recognition. Lipoprotein- A complex made of proteins and lipids. phospholipid- a molecule w a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail forming the base of cell membranes. Substrate- molecule in which enzyme acts to catalyze a chemical reaction, leading to the formation of products
9. Describe how carbohydrates are stored in the body: stored primarily as glyco- gen in the liver and
muscles
10. Difference between monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccha- rides: Mono are single
sugar molecules, di are made up on 2 monosaccharides, poly are complex carbohydrates made up of many monosaccharides.
blood pH, while acidosis refers to decreased blood pH.
19. Describe a buffer: A solution that resist change in pH by absorbing or releasing hydrogen ions
20. describe the difference between oxidation and reduction in terms of elec- trons gained / lost.:
oxidation involves the loss of electrons while reduction involves the gain of electrons.
21. *Outline the steps of cellular respiration in detail: glycolysis, the krebs cycle, and the electron
transport chain
22. Describe the difference between aerobic vs. anaerobic respiration. ie where does it occur and
what is the final product of each.: Aerobic respiration requires oxygen and occurs in the mitochondria, producing more ATP than aerobic respiration which occurs in the cytoplasm.
23. Describe the steps of aerobic respiration: AR involves glycolysis, which breaks down glucose
into pyruvate, the krebs cycle, which produces high energy molecules, and the electron transport chain, which generates ATP.
24. Understand the role of NADH in the citric acid cycle.: NADH carries electrons to the electron
transport chain, where they are used to produce ATP.
25. Describe the stage of respiration that generates the most ATP: Th electron chain during aerobic
respiration.
26. Describe ATP synthase and its importance in producing ATP: ATP synthase is an enzyme complex
that produces ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate during oxidative phosphorylation.
27. Explain the difference between catabolic vs. anabolic metabolism, and exergonic vs. endergonic.:
Catabolic metabolism breaks down molecules and re- lease energy, while anabolic metabolism builds
larger molecules & requires energy. Exergonic reactions release energy, while endergonic reactions absorb energy.
28. Describe the basic electrolytes in the body: Sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, calcium,
and magnesium.
29. Describe which atoms are cations and which atoms are ions.: cations are positively charged
anions are negatively charged ions.
30. Describe the phospholipid bilayer (cell membrane) and what is it com- posed of.: composed of
hydrophilic phosphate heads and hydrophobic fatty acid tails
31. Define "Selective permeability": Allows certain molecules to pass through while restricting
others.
32. Compare and contrast hydrophilic vs. hydrophobic: Hydrophilic, attracts water hydrophobic,
repels water.
33. contrast characteristics of extracellular fluid and intracellular fluid: Extra- cellular fluid is found
outside cells, intracellular fluid is found inside the cells
34. describe the difference between hydrostatic pressure vs. osmotic pres- sure: hydrostatic
pressure is the pressure exerted by fluid at equilibrium. while osmotic pressure is required to stop the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane
35. Describe the difference between diffusion and osmosis, and the move- ment of water/ particles
up or down their concentration gradient: Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. While osmosis is the movement of water across a
eternal stressors such as heat or pH changes.
44. Describe phagocytosis, endocytosis, and exocytosis.: Phagocytosis, the process by which cells
engulf large particles or pathogens. Endocytosis, involves the uptake of molecules or particles into a cell by forming vesicles from the cell membrane. Exocytosis is the release of substances from a cell by fusion of vesicles with the cell membrane.
45. Describe what an organic compound is: contain carbon atoms banded to hydrogen atoms.
they include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids
46. Describe the importance of DNA & RNA: DNA stores genetic information, RNA is involved in
protein synthesis.
47. Explain the reason why the resting membrane potential of a neuron is negative and how
potassium leak plays a role in that.: due to the higher concen- tration of sodium ions outside the cell and potassium ions inside the cell. Potassium leak channels maintain this negative change by allowing potassium ions to move out of the cell.
48. Explain the concept of sodium/ potassium pump and the role of ATP for it to occur.: The sodium/
potassium pump actively transports sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell, maintaining the concentration gradients across the cell membrane.
49. describe the factors contributing to resting membrane potential.: ion con- centration gradients,
ion permeability of the membrane, and the activity of ion channels and pumps.
50. describe the part of a neuron that receives signals from other neurons.: -
Dendrites receive signals from other neurons and transmit them to the cell body
51. Describe the steps of an action potential.: action potential involves depolar- ization, repolarization,
and hyperpolarization. during depolarization sodium gates open allowing sodium ions to enter the cell making the membrane potental more pos- itive. During repolarization potassium gates open allowing potassium ions to leave the cell, restoring the negative membrane. during hyperpolarization the membrane potential becomes more negative than the resting potential
52. Describe the importance of myelin sheath: increases the speed of action potentials
propagation by insulating the axon and allowing saltatory conduction
53. Describe saltatory conduction: the rapid propagation of action potential along myelinated axons,
"jumping" from one node of Ranvier to the next
54. Explain absolute and relative refractory periods: the period during which a second action
potential cannot be initiated regardless of stimulus strength. relative refractory period is the period which a second action potential can be initiated but requires a stronger stimulus
55. Compare EPSPs and IPSPs: excitatory postsynaptic potentials depolarize the membrane
increasing the likelihood of an action potential. inhibitory postsynaptic potentials hyperpolarize the membrane, decreasing the likelihood of an action potential.
56. Explain the structure and function of a nerve: nerve cell consist of a cell body (containing the
nucleus and organelle) dendrites (receiving signals), and axon (transmitting signals)
57. explain which part of the neuron is the location for action potentials: the axon hilcock
58. general characteristics and functions of the four main types of tissues: -
Epithelial, connective tissue, and muscular
more open and flexible arrangement of collagen, 2 types areola and adipose tissue provides insulation protection. Fluid: liquid extracellular matrix, blood plasma or lymph RBC'S & WBC'S are example. Transports nutrients gas, waste, and hor- mones. Cartilage: flexible tough and resilient. provides support, cushioning, and shock absorption in joints. Slower repair
63. Describe why cartilage tissue is slower to heal: due to its avascular nature and slower metabolic
rate
64. Describe connective tissue types and their general location: Elastic: abun- dant stretchy elastic
fibers located in walls of large blood vessels (aorta & pulmonary arteries). Maintains vessel shape and contributes to blood floe, also in vocal cords & ligaments. Areolar: loose, gel like ground substance, fiber blasts, collagen, and elastic fibers. Highly vascular, located beneath epithelial tissue, surrounding blood vessels & within subcutaneous layer of the skin. Adipose: fat cells, major energy reserve, located beneath the skin (subcutaneous layer), around organs, within bone marrow.
65. Cells found in connective tissue: fibroblasts, macrophages, chondroblasts, and mast cells
66. Describe the function of blood as a connective tissue: Transports oxygen, nutrients, and waste
products
67. Compare and contrast exocrine and endocrine glands: Exo: secrete sub- stances onto body
surfaces or into body cavaties, while endo secrete hormones into the blood stream.
68. Compare and contrast Eccrine/Merocrine vs Apocrine vs Holocrine glands: E/M : secrete
sweat density onto skin surface. A & H secrete sweat into hair follicles, holocrine secrete sebum into hair follicles.
69. Describe the functions of components of the integumentary system: To protect the body,
regulate temp, synthesize vitamin D
70. Describe and identify the types of tissue found in the 3 major layers of the integumentary system.
Which two layers are technically part of the "skin" or "cutaneous membrane": The integumentary system includes the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis. The epidermis and dermis are part of the skin or cutaneous membrane. Hypodermis deepest layer primarily adipose tissue and connective tissue.
71. Describe the 4/5 main layers of epidermis, and which layer is missing in thin skin vs. thick skin:
4/5 : stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulo- sum, stratum spinosum, and stratum Basale. Stratum lucidum is absent in thin skin.
72. Describe what gives skin its color: Melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin
73. Describe a mole and ABCD rule for recognizing: A mole is a common skin growth composed of
melanocytes. Asymmetry, one half doesn't match the other half in size. Border irregularity, uneven or jagged. Color variation, multiple colors or uneven pigment discoloration. Diameter, larger than a pencil eraser.
74. Describe what contributes to finger prints: dermal papillae and epidermal ridges
83. Features of a long bone: Epiphysis(head of bone), Diaphysis(body of bone) Compact bone,
Spongy bone, Marrow cavity.
84. Compare and contrast osteons, central canals, canaliculi, and lacunae in compact bones:
osteons are structural units of compact bones, containing central canals, canaliculi and lacunae
85. Compare and contrast compact and spongy bone and which contain spicules.: compact bone is
dense and strong, while spongy bone contains trabec- ulae and red bone marrow.
86. Describe spongy bone and the structures within: spongy bone contains trabeculae and red
bone marrow.
87. Compare and contrast bones epiphysis vs. diaphysis: Epiphysis are the ends of long bones
diaphysis are the shaft
88. compare and contrast the bones periosteum vs. endosteum: periosteum covers outer surface,
endosteum lines the inner surface.
89. Describe the location and composition of articular cartilage: Articular car- tilage covers the
epiphyses and reduces friction in joints
90. Describe the cells found in bone, their location, and their functions: Os- teocytes: maintain
bone tissue by regulating mineral homeostasis. Location small spaces called lacunae. Osteoblasts: synthesize and deposit new bone tissue. Location, surface of bone tissue in areas w active bone formation or repair Osteoclasts: Responsible for bone resorption. Location, on bone surface in areas undergoing bone resorption all 3 work together for bone remodeling.
91. Describe Hydroxyapatite: mineral compound that gives bone its hardness.
92. Describe the process of osteoclasts and their role in bone restriction: os- teoclasts resorbs bone
tissue, releasing calcium ions into blood stream
93. Describe the purpose of red bone marrow: Red bone marrow produces blood cells
94. Identify the roles of different cellular components in bone growth and ossification:
Endochondral ossification involves the replacement of cartilage by bone, while intramembranous ossification involves the formation of bone within connective tissue membranes
95. Describe the effects of exercise on bones: exercise stimulates bone remod- eling and increases
bone density
96. Describe the process of bone growth, development, and repair: Bone growth occurs through
endochondral ossification in fetal development and appo- sitional growth throughout life. Bone development involves constant remodeling regulated by hormones like growth hormone and estrogen. Bone repair involves inflammatory response, formation of a callus, and remodeling by osteoclasts and osteoblasts, ultimately restoring bone integrity.
97. Describe Appositional bone growth: Appositional bone growth occurs at the bone surface
98. Describe wolfs law of bone: wolfs law states that bone remodels in response to mechanical stress
99. Describe the difference between the epiphyseal plate and the epiphyseal line, in relation to bone
growth in childhood vs. adulthood, and how growth hormone is involved: The epiphyseal plate is the site of longitudinal bone growth
106. Describe fibrous joints and where they are found.: Fibrous joints are found in the sutures of the
skull.
107. Compare and contrast synostosis vs. syndesmosis vs. symphysis: Synostosis joints are
immovable, syndesmosis joints allow slight movement, symphysis joints allow limited movement.
108. Describe a root canal of a tooth and its contents.: The root canal contains blood vessels, nerves,
and connective tissue
109. Describe symphyseal joints and where they are found: Symphyseal joints are found in the pubic
symphysis and intervertebral discs.
110. Describe synovial joints, the structures found within them, and the 6 types that exist.: Synovial
joints include structures such as synovial fluid, articular cartilage, joint capsules, ligaments, tendons, and bursae.
111. Describe the function of bursa: Bursa reduce friction between moving parts of a joint
112. Describe the factors that influence the range of motion of a joint: Bone structure, ligaments,
tendons, muscles, and joint capsules
113. Describe the terms of movement: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction. plantarflexion, and
dorsiflexion
114. Describe the main ligaments found in the shoulder: The coracohumeral ligament and the
glenohumeral ligaments
115. Describe the medial and the lateral menisci of the knee: fibrocartilage discs in the knee joint
116. Describe the function of the ACL and PCL in the knee: ACL prevents anterior translation
of the tibia, PCL prevents posterior translation
117. Describe the function of the acetabulum.: The socket of the hip joint
118. Describe how muscles and articulations work together as lever systems-
: Muscles provide the force necessary to move articulations
119. Describe examples of 1st class levers: neck and head, they have the fulcrum between the effort
and resistance
120. Compare and contrast the origin vs. insertion of two muscles: The origin is the attachment site
of a muscle that remains relatively fixed during contraction, while insertion is the attachment site that moves toward the origin.
121. Compare and contrast an agonist vs. antagonist vs, synergist of a muscle-
: Agonist muscles are primary movers, antagonist oppose their action and synergist assist the prime mover.
122. Describe the difference between skeletal, cardia, and smooth muscle in terms of voluntary,
# of nuclei, and general locations: skeletal muscle is voluntary, multinucleated, and found attached to bones.
